Waiting For Godot Essay | Analysis of Waiting for Godot

wait For Godot Essay Analysis of Waiting for GodotIt is tempting to view Samuel Becketts Waiting for Godot as a play of nonhingness, with no value or importation nevertheless that of deuce men wait for any(prenominal)thing or some unmatchable to arrive. However, the company that the twain protagonist characters portray underneath the humour and bleakness of Becketts 2 part tragi-comedy, chokely makeers us something elevating amongst the emptiness of the bleak world that the characters ar staged inside. As the play progresses and we begin to learn somewhat these devil characters lives, it functions clear that they sh atomic number 18 a knowledge, caring deeply for bingle former(a) and in many courses a fate for for for separately nonp atomic number 18il iodine other in order to hold out the hostile place in which they argon living in.From the actually start of the play we become aw atomic number 18 of the knowledge of Vladimir and tarragon. As the play ope ns we witness estragon sitting al one(a) upon a rock, trying to remove his boot and repeatedly failing to do so. As Vladimir enters and replies to estragons spoken estimations, as if he had been present all a ample, we earn their experience for the first time. We are aware that the two characters clear been separated overnight, as in so far at this early stage within the play we are unaware as to how they know each other and most meaning(a)ly how massive they have known each other. Now that Vladimir is present Estragons shoe slips off with effortlessness, almost as if to say that he lowlife non remove it without the company of Vladimir. The succor in which they are reunited upsets us, as an auditory sense, an insight, and allows us to become aware of the incident that we are non witnessing two strangers on stage, we are witnessing two fri destructions. This go-ahead is continued as Vladimir states to Estragon Im glad to see you back. I thought you were gone forever . (Beckett, 200611) This direct railroad line implies that by Estragon leaving it would raise a sense of sadness for Vladimir, and the word glad reinforces any doubts that the audience have at this point as to whether or non they partake in a gild in one some other(prenominal).In the Royal administration Theatre revival of 1964, Anthony page staged Godot with Becketts presence. sca rectitudeag states that Beckett forever implied that Godot is very much somewhat relationships surrounded by human beings. (McMillan,199085) Beckett continued to express to Page that moments of the play should be a t break offer moment of complete dread between the two characters. (McMillan, 199085) And at an instant this make the line work. It is clear from this that Beckett meant for the two characters to take a relationship with one another and when one of the actors decides to set up a hierarchy for the two characters, the force between them becomes unbalanced. When Bert Lahr in the Americ an production insisted that he was top banana and warned turkey cock Ewell as Vladimir Dont crowd me the balance of the play was disturbed. (McMillan, 199062) This implies that they lease one another in order for the play to work that the companionship they portray seeks to be a poignant theme and that altering this in anyway go out upset the dynamics of the duo.David Smith for The Observer says of the play, (Waiting for Godot) reveals humanitys talents for stoicism, companionship and keeping leaving. (Smith, 2009) The twain seem to mirror the society of modern day and it is important to take to be their loneliness, their continuous waiting for Godot and I mark myself asking whether this has resulted in their hearty attachment for one another. Like any companionship they fight and accordingly they make up, yet Vladimir and Estragon certainly share the strongest want for each others companionship.Vladimir GogoEstragon DidiVladimir Your handEstragon Take itVladimir Come to my armsEstragon Your arms?Vladimir My breastThey marry. They separate. Silence. (Beckett, 200670)This fall offage in make for II portrays the expedition of their relationship throughout the play. They capitulum each others actions and the boredom in which they are isolated within may well be responsible for the argue they sustain, yet no matter what happens they return to each other, underwrite each other. Another point which struck me about this passage is the humour in which this is to be performed. Almost as if they are mocking their own friendship they embrace except yet at once they separate again. It is important to realise that they do not ever want to be each others friend, and that devising up with one another is merely because one wouldnt survive without the other. Their playful nature portrays the humour that Beckett intended for their companionship to have, and makes an audience question the realism of the pair as friends.It is however, these tender moments wit hin the play that I begin to question whether the two characters hold only a friendship, yet this adds to Becketts notion of not giving too much away. The fighting and the making up, the embracing and the separating all hold connotations to that of a conjoin couple. By the end of Act I we, as an audience, become aware of just how enormous Vladimir and Estragon have known each other Fifty eld perhaps (Beckett, 2006 51) and as Act II begins Vladimir starts to sing and this could parallel the concomitant that he is aware that Estragon is still around. In the 2001 Michael Lindsay-Hogg of Waiting for Godot for Beckett on film, this moment is played with sheer happiness. The expression on Vladimirs face turns from that of amazement to delight as he realises the pair of boots greeting him as he enters the scene are in fact Estragons. I believe that Vladimir feels as though their companionship may perhaps kick down his life its superlative sense of meaning.Within their relationship, whether this is just friendship or one of something much, it is liberal to pinpoint a two gender relationship within the one sex partnership. The National Theatre in Londons 1987 production of Waiting for Godot with Alec McCowen as Vladimir showed the tender relationship between them conciliateted easily into the scheme of things, including the touch of nanny in Alec McCowens soothing attitude to his partner. (Worth, 199079) This nursemaid approach is get ahead highlighted during Act I when Estragon violently says Im hungry. (Beckett, 200621) Vladimir cheerfully responds, as if feeding Estragon is his most interesting responsibility, making his life appear worthwhile. This situation plays Estragon as the male, placing Vladimir in the female fiber, holding connotations that their partnership is portraying that of a married couple. Vladimir is copiously feeding his wife and Estragon is the irresponsible economise, with Vladimir always coming to his aide. Their wants and needs m atch each other thoroughgoing(a)ly and it could be for this curtilageing that Beckett described them himself as a pseudo couple they dont inevitably always want to be in each others company, yet they sleep with each other as a necessity person in order to survive.In order to think about this further, the passage in Act II w here they embrace, Vladimir refers to Estragon to embrace his breasts. Again, this holds feminine connotations and is another reason for thinking of the companions as a mixed gender partnership of husband and wife. Smith reiterates this conception further, Estragon and Vladimir are the uniform a married couple whove been together too long, they grow old day by day. (Smith, 2009) As Smith states it appears that Vladimir and Estragon have been together for so long that they no longer see themselves as individuals, they have become one person and thitherfore if one leaves, so does the other. This enhances Becketts choice of the repeated line Im going, yet n either of them moves, they have physically grown to rely on one another. Vladimir speaks repeatedly of Estragons dependence of him and this not only mirrors the idea of Vladimir pickings on the role of the nursemaid as Worth stated, only when that although this seems warranted at times, at other times it seems as though it isnt the friendship that they are seeking, but simply the need to be emotionally dependent on the presence of another.When looking at Becketts one act theatrical field Rough for Theatre I, it is this that allows us to take it and use it to understand the companionship of Vladimir and Estragon further. Rough for Theatre I sees two characters confined on a derelict street corner where everything is in ruins. Much like Waiting for Godot they find themselves alone, with only each other for company. One portrays a blind man, whilst the other remains immobile, stuck within a wheelchair. Just like that of Vladimir and Estragon they find themselves bickering, yet find a common undercoat through their disabilities. We can begin to look at this is order to jock us understand Vladimir and Estragons relationship concerning the fact that the characters named A and B need the other in order to survive one can see and one can walk. In Waiting for Godot the personalities of the characters complement each other, one being absent- souled and forgetful with Estragon asking every so oftentimes throughout the play why are we here? and Vladimir simply replies with Were waiting for Godot. This once again shows the interdependence within their relationship and I find myself asking what would Estragon do without Vladimir? And vice versa.When thinking of Waiting for Godot in terms of rehearsal it is helpful to use Rough for Theatre I to understand the frame of mind the characters are in. It is clear that they do not necessarily want to be there, waiting, and Rough for Theatre I allows us to take the notion of need rather than want and apply this when do the roles of Vladimir and Estragon. Sir Ian McKellen states in his diary whilst working towards performing the production In Godot, Didi, Rogers character, is the provider, the guardian, the one who is trying to work out the plan. (McKellen, 2001) When looking at rehearsing and performing the embracing passage within Act II McKellens haggle direct us on the roles we should be taking, yet with great care as to not disturb the balance of equality that Vladimir and Estragon uphold. They embrace. They separate. Silence. I believe the embrace is to be performed as a quick hold of each other, a reassurance that they are still there for each other yet at once they separate, as if to imply that they do not need to be friends the entire time and that by just knowing that one another are there for each other is enough to keep them going enough to keep them waiting for Godot.In Lindsay-Hoggs film version the embrace is ad apt(predicate)ed to become a dance. In a mocking way they take hold of each other and dance around in circles, humming a simple tune. I believe that this shows the friendship to their companionship they are sharing laughter not love, and it is this laughter beyond the obtuseness of nothing to do that keeps them surviving.Vladimir and Estragon are both characters that are compel to live in a inimical world bearing no material values just the company of one another to pass the time, so it is no wonder that they fight and bicker at times and they often threaten that maybe they are better off apart. However, when the idea of suicide faces them they cannot go ahead with it, they make false statements yet as the day draws to an end they are still by one anothers side. As Vladimir answers Estragons want to hang themselves with I remain in the dark, (Beckett, 200618) Vladimir stresses his concerns to the options surrounding the outgrowth of the situation what if he goes first? What if Estragon hangs himself and past the bough breaks as Vladimir is about to do so, then he is left alone and, in some senses, in the dark. The isolation of being alone for Vladimir would be a more fatal outcome than Estragons, that of death. As Michael Billington states for The Guardian Becketts play becomes a kind metaphor for the human predicament confronted by a senseless world, the to the lowest degree we can hope for is the solace of companionship. (Billington, 2006) Vladimir and Estragon are not characters looking for friendship, although at times throughout the play we see this blossoming and then they have another argument and they wish to be anywhere but in each others company. Waiting for Godot is exploring human relationships and the play seems to reflect the friendships in society today Becketts play touches everyone. Yet being together within a static place for fifty years perhaps (Beckett, 2006 51) has allowed for the two characters to hit such a friendship, of being there for someone when they need you most. Vladimirs character shows this as he places his coat over the shoulders of a dormancy Estragon, and at the same time they have created a companionship that has meant that these two characters are really to be thought of as pieces of one personality, they fit together as one. When they reach the points in life where they feel I cant go on like this (Beckett, 2006 87) the irony of Becketts play is that they do. And there is something inexpressibly moving about the final image of their shared immobility as they confront an endless series of futile tomorrows, (Billington, 2006) together, as companions.John Hopkins arrangement of TrustsJohn Hopkins Constitution of TrustsA benefactive role under a organized religion is a offer unless he has provided valuable consideration.1 Where a bounty is made, the benefactive role go away always be a offer as it is by definition made without consideration. The traditional bankworthy saw is that blondness result not assist a pop the question.2 This generally means that wh ere a authorise is made imperfectly, fair play will not enable the intended beneficiary to claim the turn over under a combining. However, there are exceptions to the rule. This establish will consider these exceptions and the extent to which the rule has developed from justness will not assist a volunteer to a position of faithfulness will not assist a volunteer if, in doing so, it would advance the consequences of a would-be presenters folly.The leading slipperiness in this area is Milroy v Lord3 where a voluntary operation which purported to fate 50 shares to Samuel Lord on trust for Milroy. Lord was already playacting as Milroys agent under a power of attorney. The formalities of the share air were not complied with. Milroy therefore seek to establish that a trust had been declare. It was held that an toothless enthrall does not constitute a declaration of trust without there being a clear intention to create a trust. Furthermore, if a voluntary resolutenes s is to be legal and effectual, the settlor moldiness have done everything which was needed to be done to transfer the lieu and render the settlement binding upon him.4 As the shares had not been transferred, no trust was created and no gift made.The miscue of Milroy v Lord thus provides that for the settlement to be binding there must be either an straight-out transfer, a declaration of self as trustee, or a transfer of property to a third party as trustee.The facts of Jones v Lock5 were that a father produced a cheque payable to himself and said Look you here, I give this to baby it is for himself and placed the cheque in the babys hand. He then took the cheque back stating that he was going to entrap it away for him. It was held that there had been no effective gift because no reasoned transfer had occurred. Moreover, it was held that a failed gift cannot be construed to be a reasoned declaration of trust. It was said that the crucial ruler is that an owner must not be deprived of his property unless, by making a valid gift or trust, he has demonstrated the seriousness of his intention to put away of the benefit of his property.6However, where the property is vested in the trustees in circumstances outside their capableness as trustees, the trust may be constituted, even though the beneficiaries are volunteers7 (Re Rallis Will Trusts8). Other exceptions include the rule in brawny v Bird9 and Donationes Mortis Causa. As these exceptions are uncommon, the main exception and development as set out below will be the focus of this piece.The case of Re pink wine10 demonstrates the principle that where a donor has done everything they can to transfer designation to another but that outright trust has not been completed, an equitable interest will have passed, even where the donee is a volunteer.11 This principle is therefore an exception to the general rule that equity will not assist a volunteer and is based upon the inequity of reneging on a promi se once the donor has purported to transfer title by doing everything necessary for him to do.The principle in Re Rose has recently been extended. In T Choithram International SA v Pagarani,12 a man lying on his deathbed sought to declare an inter vivos trust over his property. The settlors intention was to become one of nine trustees, but he failed to transfer legal title to all nine trustees and as a consequence, under the ordinary law of trusts, the trust would not have been validly constituted. The Court of salute thus held that he had neither effectively vested the property in the trustees, nor did his words of gift render him a trustee. Furthermore the court will not give a benevolent construction so as to treat ineffective words of outright gift as taking effect as if the donor had declared himself a trustee for the donee. In the words of Hopkins, the Court of Appeal decided the matter on the basis that equity will not assist a volunteer or perfect an imperfect gift.13In all owing the appeal, the Privy Council accepted the dictums but added that equity will not strive officiously to defeat a gift. The reasoning for holding a trust was that the settlor had done all that was necessary to constitute a trust, by declaring himself as trustee. His words that he would give could only then mean I give to the trustees of the foundation trust deed to be held by them on the trusts of the foundation trust deed.14The case of Choithram may therefore be taken to be stand out for Hopkins statement that that the courts have left behind the well-known equitable maxim equity will not assist a volunteer and have reframed it as equity will not assist a volunteer if, in doing so, it would repair the consequences of a would-be donors folly. This is because, in both Re Rose and Choithram there was no folly in the sense that the donor had not done all that was necessary and therefore, on the basis of the reformulated maxim the trusts were rightly held. Conversely, in both Jon es v Lock and Milroy v Lord, the donor had not done all that was necessary, and was therefore acting in folly.However, this is not the end of the developments. In Pennington v Waine15 A owned 1500 of the 2000 shares in C Ltd. She instructed P, a partner in C Ltd auditors, that she wished to transfer 400 shares to her nephew H and that he was to become a director. A signed the share and P placed it on the companys file. A made her will a short time later bequeathing the rest of her shareholding but making no mention of the 400 shares transferred to H.Under the traditional law, as seen above, the gift would have been complete only once the signed persuade transfer form and the share certificate had been handed to the donee. The Court of Appeal in fact held that the gift was to be regarded as completely constituted, patronage the lack of delivery and the fact that there was apparently nothing to break short A from recalling her gift.16The Court of Appeal followed the maxim as stated in Choithram that equity will not assist a volunteer but will not strive officiously to defeat a gift. It was held that at the time it would be hideous for the transferor to be able to change their mind, equity should hold the gift to be properly constituted. Per Arden LJIf one proceeds on the basis that a principle which animates the answer to the question whether an apparently neither gift is to be treated as completely constituted is that a donor will not be permitted to change his or her mind if it would be unconscionable, in the eyes of equity, vis--vis the donee to do so, what is the position here? There can be no comprehensive list of factors which makes it unconscionable for the donor to change his or her mind it must depend on the courts evaluation of all the relevant considerations. What then are the relevant facts here? A made the gift of her own free will there is no finding that she was not competent to do this. She not only told H about the gift and signed a form of transfer which she delivered to P for him to secure accommodation her agent also told H that he need take no action. In addition H agreed to become a director of the company without coiffe of time, which he could not do without shares being transferred to him.It has been argued that this decision was based on a misunderstanding of the decision in Choithram where it was held that it would be as unconscionable for a settlor who had declared a trust when he was one of a number of trustees to subsequently resile from his declaration as if he had declared himself to be the sole trustee.17 Moreover, it is widely accepted that the decision goes much further than previous law.18Examining Hopkins statement in light of this development, it is unlikely that the maxim can be said to be redefined to incorporate the donors folly, as the present position appears to leave plenty of scope for assisting a volunteer where doing so would correct a donors folly. Indeed, Pennington v Waine may well be overruled in the future, but at present, the most apt re-statement of the maxim is equity will not assist a volunteer unless it would be unconscionable not to do so.19BibliographyDelany, H., and Ryan, D., Unconscionability a unify theme in equity, (2008) Conv 401Garton, J., The role of the trust mechanism in the rule in Re Rose, (2003) Conv 364Halliwell, M., Perfecting imperfect gifts and trusts have we reached the end of the Chancellors keister?, (2003) Conv 192Hopkins, J., Constitution of trusts a novel point, (2001) CLJUK 483Hudson, A., Equity and Trusts, 5th Edition (2007), Routledge-CavendishMartin, J.E., Hanbury and Martin Modern Equity, seventeenth Edition (2005), syrupy maxwellMorris, J., Questions when is an invalid gift a valid gift? When is an incompletely constituted trust a completely constituted trust? fare after the decisions in Choithram and Pennington, (2003) PCB 393Oakley, A.J., Parker and Mellows The Modern Law of Trusts, 9th Edition (2008), Sweet MaxwellP ettit, P.H., Equity and the Law of Trusts, tenth Edition (2006), Oxford University PressTham, C.H., Careless share giving, (2006) CONVPL 411Watt, G., Trusts and Equity, 3rd Edition (2008), Oxford University PressFootnotes1 Pettit, P.H., Equity and the Law of Trusts, 10th Edition (2006), Oxford University Press, pg 1042 Hudson, A., Equity and Trusts, 5th Edition (2007), Routledge-Cavendish, pg 263 (1862) 4 De GF J 2644 Hudson, supra pg 2215 (1965) LR 1 Ch App 256 Watt, G., Trusts and Equity, 3rd Edition (2008), Oxford University Press, pg 1217 Martin, J.E., Hanbury and Martin Modern Equity, 17th Edition (2005), Sweet Maxwell, pg 1228 1964 Ch 2889 (1874) 18 Eq 31510 1952 Ch 49911 Hudson, supra pg 22212 2001 1 WLR 113 Hopkins, J., Constitution of trusts a novel point, (2001) CLJUK 48314 Lord Browne-Wilkinson at 1215 2002 1 WLR 207516 see Morris, J., Questions when is an invalid gift a valid gift? When is an incompletely constituted trust a completely constituted trust? attend to af ter the decisions in Choithram and Pennington, (2003) PCB 39317 Oakley, A.J., Parker and Mellows The Modern Law of Trusts, 9th Edition (2008), Sweet Maxwell, pg 15618 Garton, J., The role of the trust mechanism in the rule in Re Rose, (2003) Conv 364 Tham, C.H., Careless share giving, (2006) CONVPL 411 Delany, H., and Ryan, D., Unconscionability a unifying theme in equity, (2008) Conv 40119 Halliwell, M., Perfecting imperfect gifts and trusts have we reached the end of the Chancellors foot?, (2003) Conv 192

Number Of Variations And The Impact Of Variations

Number Of adaptations And The trespass Of sportsControls for strains and Variation dedicates take away been suggested by many researchers(Mokhtar et al., 2000 Ibbs et al., 2001). Below be 30 approach identified from a literature review to tighten up figure and the imp mo of Variations. These approach were categorized into three categories Design coif, Construction set up and Design-Construction interface stage.Design Stage Approach to Control Variations compass pointVariation step-down approachDescriptionsSource1Review of gouge documents nationwide and balanced Variation clauses would be overhaulful in transplant coordination and chat quality .Conflicts in the midst of baffle documents arouse result in misinterpretation of the actual requirement of a discombobulate.(CII, 1994a)2Freezing be later(prenominal) onVariations in approach pattern push aside affect a calculate adversely depending on the timingof the occurrence of the commutes. Therefore, freezing the introduction is a good control method.Many owners freeze the form and close the door for variations after the completion of the dra net incomegs.(CII, 1990a)3Value engineering at conceptual varietyDuring the design contour, value engineering disregard be a comprise saving exercise, as at this stage, Variation in any design element would not require re drop dead or demolition at the edifice put. Value engineering at the conceptual stage fuel assist in clarifying cast objectives and reducing design discrepancies.(DellIsola, 1982).4 thing of paids at initial stages of take to date of professionals in design whitethorn assist in developing better designs by accommodate their creative and practical ideas. This practices would assist in developing a complete design with minimum discrepancies .Practical ideas that are not accommodated during the design phase may affect the forge adversely. Variation during the plait phase is a costly activity as it may initiate numer ous changes to expression activities.(Arain et al., 2004)(OBrien, 1998).5Employers conflict at planning and design phaseInvolvement of the Employer at thedesign phase would assist in clarifying the be after objectives and identifying disobedience with their requirements at the primal stage .Hence, this may help in eliminating Variations during the construction stage where the impact of the Variations can be severe(Fisk, 1997)6Involvement of cut offor at planning and schedule processInvolvement of the Employer at the design phase would assist in clarifying the project objectives and identifying disobedience with their requirements at the early stage .Hence, this may help in eliminating Variations during the construction stage where the impact of the variations can be severe.(Fisk, 1997).7Thorough particularisation of designA clearer design tends to be comprehended more(prenominal) readily. This would withal assist in identifying the errors and omissions in design at an early stage. Eventually, thoroughgoing(a) detailing of design can eliminate Variations arising from ambiguities and errors in design.(OBrien, 1998)8 pop off and thorough project briefA clear and thorough project brief is an beta control for Variations in construction projects as it helps in clarifying the project objectives to all the participants. Eventually, this may minify the design errors and disobedience with the Employers requirements.(OBrien, 1998)9Reducing contingency sumThe provision of a wide contingency sum may affect the construction team up running(a) approaches. This is because the designer may not develop a comprehensive design and would consequently carry out the rectifications in design as Variations during the later stages of the construction project. Therefore, reducing the contingency sum would be helpful in ensuring that the professionals carry out their jobs with diligence.Construction Stage Approach to Control Variations stageVariation Reduction approachDescr iptionsSource1Clarity of Variation Order proceduresClarity of Variation Order procedures is an integral part of effectual management of Variation Orders. Early in the project construction stage, the procedures should be identified and made clear to all parties. Clarity of Variation Order procedures would help in reducing the processing cadence and other mishandling issues.(Mokhtar et al., 2000)(Ibbs et al., 2001).2Written approvalsAny Variation in the cause that involves a change in the original price must be approved in writing by the Employer before a Variation can be executed. Any party signing of behalf of the Employer must have written warrant from the Employer. It is difficult to prove the right for compensation if there is no such(prenominal) authorization from the Employer. In the hectic environment of construction, many verbal agreements can be forgotten, leaving the Contractor without any legal proof to adopt compensation for the Variations works.(CII,1990a Hester et al., 1991 cox, 1997).3Variation Order screen backgroundA advantageously defined scope can assist the professional team in recognizing and planning appropriately to minimize the negative impact of the Variation. The original scope should be clear and well defined to distinguish between a Variation of scope and a Variation due to design development. It is reciprocal that there are disagreement between parties in a project was about defining the Variation scope. Thus, the effective definition of the scope of work helps us to identify and manage Variations.(Ibbs et al. 2001).(CII ,1994b)4Variation logic and apologyVariation logic and apology for implementation was one of the principles of effective change management. This principle indispensable a change to be classified as required or elective. Required changes were required to meet original objectives of the project while elective changes were additional features that enhanced the project. Knowing the logic and justification beh ind the proposedVariations assist the professionals in promoting beneficial Variations and eliminating non-beneficial Variations.Proposed by (Ibbs et al. 2001).5 escort Project manager from an independent firm to manage the projectInvolvement of a project manager from an independent firm would assist in eliminating Variations that arise due to the lack of coordination among professionals. This practice may assist in reducing design discrepancies through with(predicate) early reviews of the contract documents and drawings.(Arain et al., 2004)6 dependant pre-qualification system of rules for awarding projectsA restricted pre-qualification system for awarding projects would act as a filter to select only the cap qualified Contractors for project bids.(Chan and Yeong, 1995 Fisk, 1997)7Employers involvement during construction phaseInvolvement of the Employer during the construction phase would assist in identifying noncompliance with the requirements and in approving the Variations pr omptly .The involvement of the Employer during the construction phase allows to keep him aware of ongoing activities and assist in prompt decision devising.(Ibbs et al., 2001).8Avoid use of open tendering competitive open tendering usually encourages the Contractor to price very low to win the contract, especially in bad times when they are in adopt of jobs. This practice would give rise to the Contractor trying to title more to compensate for the low price award. Avoiding the use of open tender would help in eliminating the risks of unfair bids. This may also help in reduces Variations that may arise due to the contractors bidding strategy.(Chan and Yeong, 1995)9Use of project scheduling/management techniquesTo manage a Variation means beingable to anticipate its effects and to control, or at least monitor, the associated cost and time impact. The some known scheduling techniques in the construction industry are CPM, PERT and Gantt chart Microsoft Project These techniques are he lpful in identifying the decisive path of any Variations on subsequent construction activities. Well think and close monitoring on the schedule plan will helps to reduce the Variations effects on the project.(Hester et al., 1991)(Clough and Sears, 1994).(Mokhtar et al., 2000).10Comprehensive documentation of variation placeThrough timely notification anddocumentation of Variation Orders, participants will have kept their rights and thereby their option to pursue a subsequent claim or to defend against a claim. One of the most aggravating conditions is the length of time that elapses between the time when a proposed contract modification is set-back announced and when the matter is finally rejected or approved as a Variation Order. Documentation of Variation and claims had assisted in trailing the effects of the Variation and claim events on time and cost. A record source of knowledge about previous Variation instructions would be helpful in making decisions concerning the appro priate handling of Variation instructions.(Cox, 1997 OBrien, 1998).(Fisk, 1997)Cox (1997)Design-Construction Interface Stage Approach to Control VariationsItemVariation Reduction approachDescriptionsSource1Prompt approval proceduresOne of the most aggravating conditions is the length of time that elapses between the time when a proposed contract modification is first announced and when the matter is finally rejected or approved as a Variation .However, the longer the period between recognition and implementation, the more costly the change will be.(Fisk, 1997).2 baron to negotiate VariationAbility to negotiate Variation is an important mover for the effective control of Variations. Effective negotiation can assist the professional team in minimizing the negative impacts of the Variation. There are certain skills required for effective negotiation of Variations, i.e., the knowledge of contract terms, project details, technology, labour rates, equipment, methods and communication ski lls.(Clough and Sears, 1994)(Cushmanand Butler, 1994)3Valuation of indirect effectsConsequential effects can occur later in the downstream phases of a project. Therefore, it is essential to hump this possibility and establish the mechanism to evaluate its consequences.Professionals should thus evaluate the add up overall effects a change may have on the later phases of a project, in order to manage the Variations effectively.(Ibbs et al., 2001).4 aggroup effort by Employer, consultant and Contractor to control VariationCoordination is important in a multi-participant environment as in most construction projects Detrimental Variations, which affect the projects negatively, can usually be managed at an early stage with due diligence in coordination.(CII, 1994a Assaf et al., 1995).5Utilize work breakdown structureA work breakdown structure (WBS) is a management tool for identifying and defining work. A Contractor should consider use the this as an evaluation tool, especially on larg e projects. If a Variation involves work not previously included in the WBS, it can be logically added to the WBS and its relationship with the other WBS element can be easily checked. Domino effects can also be traced by the use of WBS.(Hester et al., 1991 Mokhtar et al., 2000).(Hester et al., 1991)6Continuous coordination and direct communicationcoordination, and tell on communicationare essential to reduce miscommunication among team members, hence reduce the chances of occurring Variations(Assaf et al.,1995).7Control the authorisation for Variations to arise through contractual clauses pickax of the appropriate standard contract form (JKR, PAM2006 etc) with the necessary and unambiguous Variation clauses would be helpful in the management of Variations.Clear procedures presented in the contract and fair allocation of risks can help in resolving disputes through negotiation rather than litigation.(Cox, 1997)8Comprehensive site investigationComprehensive site investigations assi st in proper planning for construction activities. Differing site conditions are an important cause of delays in large building projects.Therefore, a comprehensive site investigation would help in reducing effectiveness Variations in a project.(Fisk, 1997).9Use of collected and organized project data compiled by Employer, consultant and ContractorThe Variations works should always be documented for future references. Hence, better controls for Variations were achievable by sharing a database compiled by all the team members(Fisk,1997).10Knowledge-base of previous similar projectsFrom the outset, project strategies and philosophies should take advantage of lessons learned from past similar projects. If professionals have a knowledge-base established on past similar projects, it would assist the professional team to plan more effectively before starting a project, both(prenominal) during the design phase as well as during the construction phase, minimize and control Variations and t heir effects.(CII, 1994b).11Comprehensive analysis and prompt decision making through computerizedknowledge-based decision support systemA Decision ache System (DSS) approach for management decisions seems to be the ideal approach to follow. The system would be helpful in presenting an example scenario of the causes of Variations, their relevant effects and potential controls that would assist in decision making at the early stage of the Variations occurring.(Miresco andPomerol, 1995).

Different Types Of Retaining Wall Systems Available Construction Essay

Different symbols Of Retaining surround Sy reports Available Construction EssayAs a Construction Management Consultant of I-Consult Ltd appointed by I- urinate Sdn Bhd, I am required to propose different guinea pigs of prevailing environ system of rules available. My proposal focuses on the site probe, immenseness of retaining debate, social organization methods, blueprint concepts and prophylactic device measures to mitigate functional failures. I am required to propose an withdraw selection of the roughly equal retaining border system utilize to the wit of Directors, in which the project is located at hilly bea which consists of 20 units of lavishness bungalows.In this proposal, I am going to discussthe importance of site investigating,the importance of retaining circumvent,the concept of retaining border,types of retaining sea wallthe most able retaining wall for this hilly project.The Importance of Site investigatingEvery man-made civil takeing gra mmatical construction is found on, in or with strands. The coordinate we launch on the end is man-made. We can nurse to externalise every item that goes into our structure, such as concrete, reinforcement, bricks and even the last wall plug. However, the to a lower placefur to a lower place on which this structure exit stand is not man-made. We usually hurl less knowledge ab protrude it and we undoubtedly cannot image or tick its behavior. The ground below will determine the economies of how tall, how heavy, how safe the final structure is going to be and not the other(a) way round. In short, the pencil eraser and economics of every civil engineering structure is influenced by the properties of the ground on which this structure will stand. These properties of the ground below or sub- mark properties be obtained via Site investigation.In any site investigation clobber, the questions which should be stubborn in determining the investigation program arWhat type o f investigation is needed,Why they argon needed,Where the actual field works should be performed,How the work is to be done.Whether the investigation is sufficient or too much.Site investigation is normally crucial and carried out prior to the commencement of design of a verbalism project. Site investigation has been defined as investigation of the somatogenic characteristics of the site and involves documentary studies, site surveys and ground investigation. It is also refers to the actual come roughly or subsur casing investigation, including on site and laboratory tests. In roomy sense, study of the site history and environment, interpretation and analyses of all available data, and reservation recommendations on the favorable/unfavorable locations, economic and safe design, and prediction of say-so take a chances should also be included in site investigations.First and foremost, a desk study to reveal data which may already exist concerning the site, its geology and his tory, unitedly with a site reconnaissance, is invaluable and can be done in the beginning purchase at minimal cost. This may be followed by campaign pitting, probing or boring as appropriate to the conditions revealed by foregoing studies and in the put down of the development proposals. It is also a precaution to derogate damage that could be caused by these soils could also be communicated at this stage. At least home dwellers would be alerted to potential problems (and the associated costs) from the outset, thus enabling them to hold in informed decisions regarding the most appropriate foundation system for their homes.Site investigation is designed to identify the characteristics of soils or fill frameworks which lie beneath the site, the ground peeing conditions and the founding and extent of other physical features or contaminants which may be present. This education influences the selection and design of an appropriate structural form for the proposed giveing. It is a ferment which should continue on an iterative basis throughout the design and construction phases. Post-construction monitoring can also be of importance in many an(prenominal) instances as part of a validation process.The combined building laden indicated in auspicate 1 must be safely bear out up by the subsoil and also ensure that unreasonable drivings of the building do not occur. If the suffering soil is sufficient supportant and its characteristics under turn on be potential to re chief(prenominal) satisfactory, the problems of support and movement will be easily resolved. However, few soils other than rock can resist these grueling loads and it is usually necessary to collect the resolved loads at their lowest point and transfer them to adequate bearing soil know to be available on a particular site (figure 2). physical body 1 Combined building loads picture 2 method of transferring combined building loads to supporting soil.The general distribution of soil ty pes in the United Kingdom is indicated in figure 3 the soils include peat, clay, slit, sand and gravel. Corresponding safe bearing rack sensations are also given.Figure 3 simplified distribution of versatile types of supporting soilsLastly, site investigation should be undertaken by professional specialists, such as surveyors, geotechnical engineer and ground investigation contractor, and in a phased manner. The ground investigation contractor is creditworthy for providing reliable factual data. The geotechnical consultant should responsible for the planning execution of the investigation program, interpretation and analyses of results, and making appropriate design recommendations to avoid everywhere design as well as unsafe design.Failure of Site InvestigationDue to lack of or inadequacy of guide/code necessary regarding the extent as well as feature of site investigation work, geotechnical failures often occurred. These failures sometime led to catastrophic disaster and im posed sincere threat to public safety.For the mountainous Incident in Kuala Lumpur in 1993, the interior designer appointed able civil engineer to be the consulting engineer for Highland Towers. Initially, civil engineers scope of works was restricted to the structural aspect of the trio blocks. But subsequently, the civil engineer was engaged by the developer to submit proposals over the waste pipe of the state. His drain plan was approved. He was also carry by the developer to design and supervise the construction of two retaining walls on the Highland Towers site. The Plaintiffs claimed that the civil engineer was negligent for the following reasons(i) Designing un fitting foundations(ii) Lack of premeditation and concern of the hill and position(iii) Issuing a notice to the governing confirming the drainage works was completed when barely a separate of it was done.By the above acts of preparing, designing and supervising the construction of Highland Towers and the d rainage system of the Highland Towers site, he was negligent and had caused nuisance to them. The civil engineer had used rail piles welded together as foundation to support the trio apartment blocks. This type of piles, which was considered inferior to concrete piles, was authoritative in the engineering and building industry to support high-rise buildings at the material time. Thus, no fault can be attributed to the civil engineer in using the rail piles as he was only adhering to the accepted professional practice at that time. However, on that point was lack of conside balancen by the civil engineer to the hill and the slope directly behind the three blocks. The court ruled that the civil engineer should confine reasonably foreseen the risk of a landslide producing a lateral load against the foundation of the building. For this, he should have exercised care to either design or construct a foundation to accommodate the lateral load or ensure that the slope was reasonably st able. Failure to do so is a breach of his certificate of indebtedness of care he owes to the Plaintiffs since his duty was to ensure the safety of the buildings he designed and build. The civil engineers attempt to deny liability on the ground that he relied on the developer to ensure that other retaining walls were constructed properly was unsuccessful. The judge found that it was incumbent upon the civil engineer to enquire and ascertain whether the work was that of a qualified professional and what its impact susceptibility be on the safety of his declare building.Figure 4 Highland Incident in Kuala Lumpur in 1993What is Retaining beleaguer?A retaining wall is a stabilizing structure designed and constructed to retain soil at a slope that is greater than it would naturally assume, usually at a vertical or near-vertical position. Besides, the retaining wall used to hold the erosion and the movement of soil. The function of retaining wall is to resist the lateral closet of soil when on that point is a desired change in ground elevation that exceeds the natural slope taken by the soil which is called the locomote of repose of the soil. The retaining wall is the wedge of soil resting on this upper run d sustain of the angle of repose that a retaining wall has to support.It is also designed with holler holes which allow collected pee to escape. This releases the concomitantal closet created by a accumulated water and helps in stabilizing the retaining wall.The walls are designed to fling the necessary resistance by using their own sess to resist the thrust or relying upon the principles of leverage. The terminology used in retaining wall construction is shown on figure 5Figure 5 Terminology of Retaining argueConstructing a retaining wall, several types of materials can be used. cavity and concrete are the most common materials used in constructing a retaining wall. Besides, there are also special retaining wall blocks crafted from aggregate mat erials and light concrete which are designed for this purpose. Because each block fits securely with the next, some styles interconnect, making building simpler, less costly and time required. These blocks do not require the addition of daub callable to the fit of these blocks is secure.A retaining wall can be tiers or a series of steps, which allow more efficient erosion control as well as a more in advance(p) design. Different types of plantings, flowers or materials in each tier can be included in the design to bring more color, texture and elicit to the area. By breaking down the amount of soil and pressure, a tiered design also give a better erosion control held by each division of the retaining wall instead of adding the aesthetic value.Today, there are several styles and types of retaining wall blocks, and most people choose preformed blocks. irrelevant today, greathearted stones and railroad ties were often used to construct a tiered retaining wall in the past. Perform ed blocks are affordable and user- friendly, making other methods out of date at all, except the look of rough stone or wood is preferred.The Concept of Retaining WallDESIGN PRINCIPLESThe design of any retaining wall is basically concerned with the lateral pressures of the retained soil and any subsoil water. The purposes to construct a retaining wall are shown as belowIt is unvoiced to precisely identify the properties of any soil because they are inconsistent materials. The calculation of pressure exerted at any point on the wall is a task for the expert, who must take into account the following factorsNature and type of soilHeight of water tableSubsoil water movementsType of wallMaterials used in the construction of the wall.Design calculations related to the expiry thrust of retained material behind a 1m length of wall. in that location are two well-established methods can be used to determine the sequential thrustRankines formulaCoulombs graphical representation or wedge t heory. humans PRESSURESThe designer is mainly concerned with the effect of two forms of state pressureACTIVE EARTH PRESSURE are those that tend to move or overturn the retaining wall, and are composed of the creation wedge being retained together with any hydrostatic pressure caused by the presence of groundwater. The latter(prenominal) can be reduced by the use of subsoil drainage behind the wall, or by inserting drainage openings called weep holes through the weightiness of the stem, enabling the water to drain out.PASSIVE EARTH RESISTANCES are re implementist pressures that will react in the form of a resistance to movement of the wall. If the wall tends to move forward, the earth in attend of the toe to balk the forward movement. This pressure can be increased by enlarging the profundity of the toe or by forming a rib on the ass of the origin. nimble earth pressures must equal to passive earth resistances in order to avoid overturning and circular slip. Typical example s of these pressures are shown in figure 6 and figure 7.Figure 6 Active and Passive man Pressures act on rush Retaining WallFigure 7 Active and Passive Earth Pressures act on jut Retaining Wall perceptual constancyThe overall stability of a retaining wall is governed by the result of the action and reaction of a number of loadsEFFECT OF WATERThe design and stability can be affected by ground water behind a retaining wall whether static or percolating through subsoil. The pressure on the sand of the wall will be increased. By cut back the soil crop strength, the bearing capacity of the soil can be reduced it can reduce the frictional resistance between the base and the soil and reduce possible passive pressure in battlefront of the wall. As a result, the issue of drainage of the water behind the retaining wall is the utmost important in the design.SLIP CIRCLE FAILURE fault band failure (shown in figure 8) is sometimes encountered with retaining wall in clay soils, particularly where there is a heavy surcharge of retained material. It takes the form of a rotational movement of the soil and wall along a circular swerve. The arc commences behind the wall and passes under the base, resulting in a tilting and forward movement of the wall. Further movement can be prevented by driving sheet piles into ground in front of the toe, to a depth that will cut the slip circles arc.Moment collectable to weight of retained earth and wall above slip circle arc about O is greater than restoring moment RM.RM=permissible shear stress x length of arc ABC x arc radius OCResult mass above ABC rotates about O. Wall tilts forward and earth heaves in front.Figure 8 Retaining wall failure due to rotational movement.The Importance of a Retaining WallA retaining wall might be built on property for various reasons. Some level of low-down and soil will be held away from home, garden, pool or play area by building a retaining wall.The sheer aesthetics might also be added on it. A mo re operable land will be provided if there have a lot of rolling and slopping yard.The importance of retaining wall is stated as belowRetaining Walls Hold Back the EarthBuildings might be built on a hill or in a vale between several hills. Retaining wall will hold back the earth once the hillside has been dig out to construct buildings. Dirt does back in from the sides of the wall with each shovel full. The more you shovel, the dirt begins to fall back in. the sides are loose and weak, so they will crumble at the slightest provocation.The dirt which remains has to discharge when the side of a hill is dug out. If leftfield alone, it will eventually comes tumbling down. The dirt will be held back and the safety will be ensured.Retaining Walls Provide More Usable bring downA walk-out basement, patio, playground, garden, tennis court or swimming pool might be installed into proposed development. If the land is rolling or hilly, work cannot be begun until the ground is leveled off.A s ort of cliff, where a part of the proposed land which is not dug out is higher than the lower flat land, will then be left out. Adding a retaining wall will have more usable land as well as will add structure and beauty to your new area. Retaining wall can be used as steps into the pool where pool equipments to be held.Retaining Walls Avoid the Ground from airstream AwayIf the area gets a lot of rainfall or near water such as lake, a retaining wall will handle the water from eroding the soil of your landscaping and around your foundation. This could be a safety measure to prevent landslides and river of dirt from floating towards the buildings.Types of WallMass retaining wallsMass retaining walls also known as gravity walls. They rely upon their own mass together with the friction on the underside of the base to get across the tendency to slide or overturn. They are generally economic only up to a height of 1.800m. Mass walls can be constructed of semi-engineering quality bricks bedded in a 13 cement mortar or of mass concrete. Mass concrete could have some light fabric reinforcement to control surface cracking. Natural stone is suitable for small walls up to 1.000m high, but generally it is used as a facing material for walls up to 1.000m high, but generally it is used as a facing material for wall over 1.000m.Typical examples of mass retaining walls are shown in figure 9 and 10Figure 9 Brick Mass Retaining WallsFigure 10 Mass cover Retaining Wall with Stone Facings jut out wallsCantilever walls are usually of reinforced concrete, and work on the principles of leverage. Two basic forms can be considered a base with a large heel so that the mass of the wall with a large toe (figure 10). The figure shows typic sections and patterns of reinforcement encountered with these basic forms of cantilever retaining wall. The main steel occurs on the tension face of the wall, and nominal steel (0.15% of the cross-section(a) area of the wall) is very often included i n the opposite face to control the shrinkage cracking that occurs in in-situ concrete work. financial support requirements, bending, fabricating and placing are dealt with in detail in the section on the reinforced concrete. strengthened cantilever walls have an economic height range of 1.200-6.000m. Walls in excess of this height have been economically constructed using prestressing techniques. Any long facing material may be applied to the surface to amend the appearance of the wall, but it must be remembered that such finishes are nonfunctional and add nothing to the structural strength of the wall.Figure 10 strengthened Concrete Cantilever Retaining WallsCounterfort Retaining WallsThese walls can be constructed of reinforced or prestressed concrete, and are considered suitable if the height is over 4.500m. The counterforts are triangular beams placed at suitable centres behind the stem and above the base to enable the stem and base to act as slabs spanning horizontally over or under the counterforts. Figure 11 and figure 12 show a typical section and pattern of reinforcement for a counterofrt retaining wall.If the counterforts are placed on the face of the stem they are termed buttresses, and the whole arrangement is called a buttress-retaining wall. The design and construction principles are similar in the two formats.Figure 11 Reinforced Concrete Counterfort Retaining WallFigure 12 Reinforced Concrete Counterfort Retaining WallReinforced masonry retaining wallsSteel reinforcement may be used in brick retaining walls to resist tensile forces and to prevent the effects of shear. A brick adhere arrangement known as Quetta impound is used to create a uniform distribution of vertical voids. Vertical steel reinforcement is tie to the foundation reinforcement and spaced to coincide with purpose-made voids. The voids are fill up with concrete to produce a series of reinforced concrete mini-columns in spite of appearance the wall when the brickwork is c ompleted.Where appearance is not important, or the wall is to receive a surface treatment, reinforcement and in-situ concrete within hollow concrete block work provide for economical and functional construction. Figure 13 shows the application of standard-profile, hollow, dense concrete blocks lay in stretcher bond as permanent formwork to continuous vertical columns.Figure 13 Reinforced Concrete Block Retaining WallThe height potential and slenderness ratio (effective height to width) for reinforced masonry walls can be enhanced by post-tensioning the structure. For purposes of brick walls there are a number of construction options, includingQuetta bond with steel bar concrete in the voidsStretcher-bonded wide cavity with reinforced steel prohibit coated for corrosion protectionSolid wall of perforated bricks with continuous voids containing grouted steel reinforcement bars.Some examples are shown in figure 14Figure 14 Post-tensioned Brick Retaining WallsConclusionBased on discus sion shown on above, I would like to select Cantilever retaining wall as the most suitable retaining wall for the project where is located at hilly area which consists of 20 units of luxury bungalows.As shown as above, a cantilever retaining wall is a form of masonry installation that holds a large amount of earth in place. The cantilever design is just one of several variations on a retaining wall design, using various principles to manage earth loads. Cantilever retaining wall has an economic height range of 1.200-6.000m. This type of retaining wall is suitable for bungalows because the height is sufficient to support the bungalows.A concrete cantilever retaining wall uses a relatively thin stem of steel-reinforced, cast-in-place, concrete or mortared masonry. In a cantilever retaining wall design, an earth pressure vector acts horizontally against the side of the wall. The bottom part of the wall presents a gravity vector downward. That gravity vector produces an opposite force upward. The resulting vector counters the earth pressure vector, and pushes back against the earth load. This type of retaining wall is more stable compared to the other three types which stated on above in order to build 20 units of luxury bungalows because the loads are distributed equally.Retaining wall design is evaluated to condition the effects of a landslide. Retaining walls can be helpful in defend soil against the kinds of movement associated with these natural disasters. Looking at landslide risk and the risk of liquefaction, the water saturation of earth, is part of assessing how a retaining wall works. Cantilever retaining wall is one that consists of a uniform thickness wall which is tied(p) to a footing. It located at the basement of bungalows. Thus, cantilever retaining wall will hold back the earth. Soil erosion, landslides and environment disasters are less likely to be occurred. In other words, cracking and collapse of 20 units of luxury bungalows are avoided.We ep holes are designed in the cantilever retaining wall to release the additional pressure created by a accumulated water and helps in stabilizing the retaining wall. This ensures the building will not collapse due to the fast flow of water on the hill.In conclusion, a suitable retaining wall is able to stabilize the soil and avoid overturning and sliding of building. Beside, a suitable retaining wall can also help in miserliness the construction cost. Therefore, cantilever retaining wall is the most suitable retaining wall for 20 units of luxury bungalows which are located on the hilly area.

Development of Four Year Old | Observational Study

Development of Four Year Old experimental StudyINTRODUCTION TO CHILD DEVELOPMENTFelicia Heong Shin NinYvonne Michelle a/p whole t iodinhen Das ( )Ahmad Syazwan ( )Ack todayledgementsThis h r atomic number 18 up is the result of research on 4 grade anile churlren learning. The purpose of this book is to sh ar the knowledge and own percolateed in the period of clock mete outn. I was stimulated by the un identical milestones a nipper goes through while growing up and how to regularize the difference between a pincer who is just pickings his or her and one who has a true readingal delay. This book is think for people to under fool a bun in the oven childrens behavior and guide them along the way.In breeding of this book, many hold back contri just nowed many dish upful comments and information both instantly and indirectly, I would thitherfore like to say thank you to those who made it vi suit adequate to(p) for me to study this subject more than in-depth, theore tically as well as practically. There atomic number 18 also most individuals who I need to in person thank for their helpful assistance. A big thank you goes out to my lecturer, dribble Lee Wai Mun for her generous knowledge, research and experience, all of which puddle been of great magnificence in the writing process of this book.Finally, none of the people I have mentioned argon to be held account for the final version you have in your hands. All of the content in this book is entirely my responsibility. But I hope that the information in this book allow for enlightened you and help you record more well-nigh the developments of a child.Introduction nipperren grow in unique ways. While children develop at their own pace, every child should do certain t prays by a certain shape up and its insufferable to tell exactly when a child exit learn a given expertness. Theres more to tracking a childs development than logging height and weight as the process ofdevelopingfrom a flub into a child requires the achievement of manymilestonesin delivery, physical, kind, emotional development, etc. Hence, developmental milestones give parents a general idea of the changes to expect as the child strikes older.This book is about your quaternion category old child. In the course of this division children are moving out of babyhood into childhood. They have rich imaginations, they may have strong fears, they love to duck soup and they sleep with physical body process. They are beginning to be more comfortable spending virtuallywhat time away from their usual comfort zone. Sometimes they are timid about trying new things. Of course all iv year olds are dissimilar and they may develop at different rates.Indeed, some(prenominal)times its a case of dickens measures anterior and one step back, with children appearing to forget the things they once knew. Although it is difficult to define normal development, there are some milestonesthat children pile be expected to achieve. However, if you are conf intentiond about your childs development, or if they terminatet do things that they used to do for more than a short time, it is essential to see a pediatrician or child health nurse. If there is anything wrong, getting in early will help. Otherwise it is good to know that your child is developing normally in his or her own special way.It is of utmost importance to remember that the milestones are approximate, non absolute. Each child develops at his or her own pace, and some stages may occur earlier or later this guidebook allows explanations of variations physical, cognitive, emotional, and social developmental milestones to be expected during the first year of life to collect insight into observing in children today and to preview what to look forward to in the years ahead.Chapter One cognitive milepostMost children this age tail end speak clearly using more obscure sentences and enjoy singing, rhyming, and making up words. T hey are energetic, silly, and, at times, rowdy and obnoxious. Children this age can also count ten or more objects and correctly wee at least four disguises and collar shapes. They are able to bed some letters and possibly write his or her cry.Cognitive development, or the process of growth in intellectual abilities such as thinking, reasoning and understanding, is a major component of early childhood. According to the human being Health Organization, early childhood is the most important phase of development throughout the lifespan. So games for cognitive development during early childhood are an effective way to help kids grow intellectually. Categorizing is the type of games that encourage straighten outing, interconnected and assortifying and are excellent for cognitive development.Identifying colorize is a necessary skill that people use every dayfor choosing which clothes to wear, reading signs, quest traffic signalsand describing the surrounding world. This activit y provides an interactive, colorful way for your preschooler to arrange color recognition. It introduces children to this bright new world of colors using universal household objects such as solelytons to theme these objects into different sections and learn to recognize colors using a homemade addict c prowessonful sorter.Lesson conceptionDate 10th April 2015 term 10.40 a.m.-11.20 a.m.Duration 35 proceedings eld 4 years oldName of activity Name it, elucidate itMaterials 3 Paper egg carton (half-dozen or full dozen), different brightly-colored exactlytons. content Color DayFocus(BM 2.0) Kemahiran Bertutur(PFK 1.0) Perkembangan Motor Halus(ST 2.0) Kemahiran Saintifik type marrow(BM 2.1) Berinteraksi dengan mesra(PFK 1.2) Melakukan kemahiran kordinasi mata tangan dalam perkembangan kemahiran motor halus.(ST 2.3) Membanding dan mengelaskan objek. teaching amount(BM 2.1.1) Berbual dengan sebutan perkataan yang betul.(PFK 1.2.5) Menggunakan jari untuk menguntai objek bersaiz b esar dengan menggunakan tali besar.(ST 2.3.1) Membanding dan mengumpulkan objek-objek mengikut satu ciriA.)WarnaB.)BentukProcedure locomote/ Time meansActivityRemarks/ MaterialsSet innovation(5 minutes)Color poetry instructor would ask the children to sit on the floor in a circle.Teacher sings the color song and asks the children to sing and clap along.Red, yellow, green and blue, green and blue, ,Red, yellow, green and blue,Purple, orange, brown and black,Red, yellow, green and blue, green and blue.-Tune of song is of, Head, Shoulders, Knees and Toes. flavor 1(5 minutes)Group severaliseTeacher divides children into 3 groups, each group consisting of 5 children.Children are asks to name their group and come up front of the class to introduce their friends. tonus 2(5 minutes)Name the colorsTeacher shows the painted egg carton to the children.Teacher distributes the egg carton to each group.Then, each group is to stand up and name all the colors painted on the egg carton.-Egg carto n. ill-treat 3(10 minutes)ButtonsTeacher gives out same amount of different color buttons to each group.Each child is then instructed to sort the buttons into the colors painted on the egg carton.Each child transfer turns to sort the buttons into the egg carton.-Buttons, egg carton.-The buttons distributed are the same colors painted on the egg carton. tint 4(5 minutes)Sort and name itTeacher will asks the child to say the name the color of the buttons out loud as they sort it into the egg carton.Teacher will then pick one child from each group to come in front of the class and name the colors as they sort the buttons.-Buttons.Step 5(5 minutes) dissimulation color logeChildren will be ask to sit into a big circle.Teacher will give the children a stripe.In fount the box is crayons of different colors.Children will sing the magic song,Pass, pass, pass the color,This is the game we playWhen the little song is through,The color name well say.The children will pass the box around sing ing the color song until the color stops.Once the song ends, the child that holds the box will put their hand into the box and take a crayon out.The child will tell the color of the crayon. fictionalise the game until every child has at least play once.-Box hazard full with different colors of crayons.-Tune of song is of Row, Row, Row Your BoatReflectionChildren like the games and songs of the activity.Children paid attention to instructions.Children tend to throw buttons too hard in the egg carton or throw at their friends.In the future, use much bigger objects than buttons, such as sponges or straws.Chapter 2 animal(prenominal) MilestoneChapter 3 Social/Emotional MilestoneChapter 4 manner of speaking MilestoneFour year olds are now talking in artless sentences and there is so much going on intimate their head that often it seems as though the words cant come out fast enough to describe it all. They often foul up and stumble when trying to express themselves. It can be exhau sting to beware and explain things to your child but exciting to be able to conduct in their rich imaginings.They love to be read to and may loss the same book over and over again. Four year olds get across what they trust to say in most situations. Some four year olds speak very clearly, while others still use some baby talk. Some may stumble over some words but this will probably clear up by itself within the year. The average four year old can understand 1000 or more words. Four year olds can unremarkably understand place words such as under, on, beside, back, over.Four year olds ask questions beginning with What, Who, Where and Why? They can talk about what happened yesterday and about tomorrow. You can build on what your four year old says to you. Dont correct their unsuccessful efforts at words but respond positively with the correct word in your reply. analyze to be patient. Ask them questions. Some children become such enthusiastic talkers that their constant what can become irritating for parents. Most will respond to your request for you to have some quiet time from their questions at least for a some minutesLesson aimDateTime 10.40 a.m.-11.20 a.m.Duration 40 minutesYears 4 years oldName of activity vex and NameMaterials Laminated plastic, 3 plastic bottles, clean irrigate, edible food coloring, seal off marker, colorful beads and buttons.Theme WordsFocus(BI 3.0) Reading Skills(ST 2.0) Kemahiran Saintifik(BI 4.0) makeup SkillsStandard surfeit(BI 3.2) Read simple words with understanding.(BI 3.3) Read phrases with understanding.(ST 2.1) Membuat pemerhatian ke atas objek dan fenomena alam di persekitaran.(BI 4.1) Pre-writing skills.Standard Learning( BI 3.2.2) Read simple words.(ST 2.1.4) Memerhati dan bercerita secara verbal tentang pemerhatian yang telah dibuat.(BI 3.3.1) Read simple phrases with guidance (e.g. sit down, red ball).(BI 4.1.1) Engage in activities requiring eye-hand coordination.Procedure go/ TimeContentActivityRemarks/ MaterialsSet Induction(5 minutes)Step 1(10 minutes)Step 2(5 minutes)Step 3(5 minutes)Step 4(5 minutes)Step 5(5 minutes)Conclusion(5 minutes)ReflectionChapter 5 Math and Science MilestoneFour-year-olds have an increased capacity for learning math concepts. They use analytical reasoning to solve everyday problems, and can effectively use language to compare and describe objects and shapes. They can count to ten, recognize written numerals 0 to 9, and add and subtract using numbers up to four. Four-year-olds know some variations of a circle, square, triangle and rectangle. They know days of the week, months, and the seasons, but still cannot tell time.Children are naturally curious about the world and want to engender out as much as they can. They want to know what makes the pluck blow, how trees grow, wherefore fish have fins, and where turtles go in the winter. But they move intot want adults to give them the answers. They want to be the discoverers, the experimenters, and the t heory builders. They put one overt want science to be something that is im parted to them they want it to be something that they do. They want to be scientists not just consumers of science. They want to ask their own questions, collect their own data, and arrive at new and wonderful ideas. These wants should shape the understructure of an early childhood science curriculum.If youve ever dripped food coloring into oil color before, youll remember the beautiful, jewel-like drops of color floating signalise in the oil. This is because oil and water truly dont mix. If you shake them up, they emulsify, but eventually separate back into oil and water. This activity is to teach children about science but at the same time involves math. The ingredients are using edible ingredients, this makes them a safe science activity for children to make on their ownLesson PlanDateTime 10.40 a.m.-11.20 a.m.Duration 40 minutesYears 4 years oldName of activity Shake and CountMaterials two plastic bo ttle, cooking oil, clean water, food coloring, oil-based coloring, a bamboo skewer, waterproof marker, Beads, Buttons, laminated plastic.Theme Science and MathFocus(ST 2.0) Kemahiran Saintifik(ST 7.0) Konsep Nombor(ST 4.0) Menyiasat Alam BahanStandard Content(ST 2.1) Membuat pemerhatian ke atas objek dan fenomena alam di persekitaran.(ST 7.1) Memahami nombor 1-10.(ST 4.1) Meneroka sifat umum bahan.Learning Standard(ST 2.1.4) Memerhati dan bercerita secara verbal tentang pemerhatian yang telah dibuat.(ST 7.1.1) Menyebut nama nombor 1 hingga 10 (rote counting).(ST 7.1.2) Memadankan angka 1 hingga 10 dengan nama nombor secara lisan. (Contoh 2-dua)(ST 4.1.1) Memerhati dan mengumpulkan objek kepada yang tenggelam dan timbul.Procedure travel/ TimeContentActivityRemarks/ MaterialsSet Induction(5 minutes)Counting domesTeacher divides children to three groups. Each group containing 5 children.Teacher takes out three bags filled with beans.The bags are then distributed to the children.In fro nt of the classroom is aStep 1(10 minutes)Step 2(5 minutes)Step 3(5 minutes)Step 4(5 minutes)Step 5(5 minutes)Conclusion(5 minutes)ReflectionChapter 6 medicinal drug MilestoneFour-year-olds can come upon changes in pitch, tempo, loudness and musical duration. They can sing songs of their own creation as well as memorized ones. Their art begins to be more realistic, and may incorporate letters. Four-year-olds love to dance, and are able to move rhythmically and smoothly. Their dramatic play is highly imaginative and now has the structure of specific scenarios, like going to the grocery store or rescuing a cat stuck in a tree.By now, 4 year olds can understand basic principles of tone, tempo, genre, pitch, etc. (e.g., can describe which songs are fast and slow or high and low). They can sing complex songs and play an instrument alone as well as with group (e.g., learns newly introduced songs by memory in a day or two). 4 year olds also can use music to ricochet thoughts and feeling s (e.g., starts buzzing like a bee while looking through a storybook on insects). If taught, children will regard music as a part of daily life (e.g., gets out mat for nap upon hearing flocculent music being played, puts away toys when clean-up song is sung).Lesson PlanDateTime 10.40 a.m.-11.20 a.m.Duration 40 minutesYears 4 years oldName of activity Shake itMaterials Three teaspoons uncooked sieve, dried beans, two empty diet shake cans or soda cans, clear fisticuffs tap, pencil, scissors, markers or stickers.ThemeFocusContent StandardStandard LearningProcedureSteps/ TimeContentActivityRemarks/ MaterialsSet Induction(5 minutes)Step 1(10 minutes)Step 2(5 minutes)Step 3(5 minutes)Step 4(5 minutes)Step 5(5 minutes)Conclusion(5 minutes)ReflectionPut the rice in an empty diet shake can (soda cans dont last as long, but they will work for this project.) Remove the tab and seal the rise with clear packing tape.If you like, make your own cool label for the can. To make the label, cut a piece of paper nine inches long and four and one-half inches wide. Decorate the label with markers or stickers.Tape one side of the label to the can. Then make small rolls of tape and stick them between the label and the can. Wrap the label around the can so that the unfastened end overlaps the taped end, and tape down the loose end.Put dried beans in the other can, and make a decorated label for that one, too. Try using the rice can for a lighter sound and the bean can for a louder sound. Start shakingKids can turn social function supplies into sound machines with the activity on the next page.Chapter 7 Art and creativity MilestoneBy age 4, many children are learning to remediate control their hand and wrist movements. They are making forms and objects that are almost, but not quite, recognizable to adults. Circles, lines and crosses are always popular forms. Some 4 year olds may begin naming their drawings. In the middle of drawing, a child may look and say something like, T his is a truck, or, This is Mommy. Naming artistic production is a big step that shows the child has begun to think in terms of mental pictures. It doesnt matter that the drawing has little or no resemblance to Mommy. What matters is that the child has discovered that drawing is more than just something physically fun to do.Gradually, some of these forms have taken shape and adults can identify them as people, houses, cars or whatever the young artist intended to draw. representative drawings at this age are pictures of people consisting of large heads that appear to have arms and legs growing out of them. There is usually little separate of relative size in these drawings. Tiny legs sprout out of immense heads. A drawing of a butterfly may be twice as big as a dog.Whatever is most important to the child at the time gets the biggest play on the page what is not important may simply be left out. Thats why children may leave out fingers, necks or other body parts. Its not that c hildren dont notice that people have fingers its just that fingers are not important to them at the time they are drawing.During this stage, children may find colors very exciting. Children are not come to with realistic color representations. They just like to use color. One child may make everything on the page red. Another may use every color in the box on one drawing. Child care providers should not require children to use certain colors or try to read any deep psychological meanings into a childs choice of colors.Lesson PlanDateTime 10.40 a.m.-11.20 a.m.Duration 40 minutesYears 4 years oldName of activity Hand PaintMaterials Colorful paint, clean cloth, clean water, newspaper, paint encounterTheme Art and CreativityFocus(KTI 1.0) Seni Visual(PFK 1.0) Perkembangan Motor HalusContent Standard(KT 1.1) Menggunakan pengetahuan tentang bahan dan teknik dalam menghasilkan karya seni.(KTI 1.2) Menzahirkan idea kreatif dalam penghasilan karya. (Ekspresi kreatif)(KTI 1.3) Menunjukkan a presiasi seni.(PFK 1.0) Melakukan kemahiran motor halus.Standard Learning(KTI 1.1.1) Mengenal bahan yang diperlukan untuk menghasilkan sesuatu karya contohnya berus dengan bimbingan guru.(KTI 1.2.4) Membuat corak dan rekaan yang mudah melalui pelbagai aktiviti.(KTI 1.3.1) Menceritakan dan mempamerkan hasil kerja sendiri.(PFK 1.1.3) Menggunakan tangan untuk meramas (mix).ProcedureSteps/ TimeContentActivityRemarks/ MaterialsSet Induction(5 minutes)Step 1(10 minutes)Step 2(5 minutes)Step 3(5 minutes)Step 4(5 minutes)Step 5(5 minutes)Conclusion(5 minutes)Reflection

Definition Of Motivation Business Essay

Definition Of pauperism blood EssayOne of the oldest, and most difficult, atomic number 18as in psychology is the unfathomed enigma of why tribe be do to do eitherthing at all, and if they do something, why that and non something else. The issue is sincerely two fold the character of the driving force (where it comes from what argon its properties) and the prudence and maintenance of the drive (what affects does it study on soulfulness behavior).For Westwood (1992288), motif, as a purpose, has certain special features motivation is an inhering state experienced by the undivided. Whilst external factors including other mountain, fundament affect a persons motivational state, it develops at heart the individual and is unique to that individual.The individual experiences a motivational state in a way that gives advancement to a desire, intention and pressure to act.Motivation has an element of choice, intention or waive foringness. That is, the individual ex periencing a state of arousal (externally or internally generated), responds by choosing to act in a way and at a take aim of intensity that they determine.Action and per solveance atomic number 18 a function, at to the lowest degree in part, of motivation. It is and so important in our ability to predict and bring in actions and consummateance.Motivation is multi-faceted. It is a complex process with s everal elements and the possibility of binary determinants, options and come oncomes.Individuals differ in terms of their motivational state and the factors that affect it.Furthermore, the motivational state of an individual is variable it is divergent crossways magazine and across situations.(John Arnold et al, 1995) on that point are two types of motivation as originally place by Hertzberg et al (1957)Intrinsic motivation-The self generated factors that influence people to ex unrivalledrate in a particular direction. These factors include responsibility, autonomy (free dom to act), scope to commit and develop skills and abilities, inte resting and challenging snip and opportunities for advancement.Extrinsic motivation-what is done to or for people to motivate them. This includes rewards, such as increased recompense, praise, or promotion, and penalizations, such as disciplinary action, withholding pay, or criticisms.2.2 The process of motivation incite other people is about mystifyting them to move in the direction you fatality them to go in order to achieve a go forth. motivation yourself is about saddle horse the direction independently and and so taking a course of action, which will ensure that you get there. Motivation throne be described as mark -directed behavior. People are motivated when they support that a course of action is belike to caterpillar tread to the attainment of a refinement and a measured reward-one that satisfies their postulate. But managers still put one over a major part to play in using their motiva ting skills to get people to give of their best, and to gain ground good usage of motivational processes showd by the organization. To do this it is necessary to understand the process of motivation-how it endures and the different types of motivations that exist. A pauperisation -related model of the process of motivation is shown in the figure be commencement. This suggests that motivation is initiated by the conscious or unconscious recognition of unsatisfied necessitate. These inevitably create wants, which are desires to achieve or obtain something. destinations are thusly established which is bankd will satisfy these ineluctably and wants and a behaviour driveway is selected which is expected will achieve the address. If the mark is achieved, the postulate will be satisfied and the behaviour is likely to be repeated, the bordering time a sympathetic ingest emerges. If the goal is not achieved, the action is slight likely to be repeated. This process of repe ating achievementful behaviour or actions is cal conduct backing or the law of effect (Hull, 1951). It has, however, been criticized by Allport (1954) as ignoring the influence of expectations and thereof constituting hedonism of the past. (Michael Armstrong, 2001 155).Attain polishNeedTake ActionEstablish object epitome2.1 The motivation process(Source Michael Armstrong, 2001155).2.3 Approaches to motivation2.3.1 possibility X and hypothesis YDouglas Mc Gregor proposed two distinct positions of benignant beingnesss one basically negative, designate guess X, and the other basically ap peaked(p), labeled conjecture Y.Under Theory X, the 4 assumptions held by managers areEmployees inherently dislike report, whenever possible, will set about to avoid it.Since employees dislike become, they must be coerced, disciplineled, or threatened with penalty to achieve goals.Employees will avoid responsibilities and adjudicate formal direction whenever possible. nigh do b lend iners place security above all other factors associated with work and present light ambitions.In contrast to these negative flocks the nature of tender-hearted being, Mc Gregor listed 4 dictatorial assumptions that he called Theory YEmployees toilet view work as being as natural as rest or play.People will exercise self-direction and self-control if they are committed to the objectives.The average person nominate learn to accept, even seek responsibility.The ability to make innovative last is widely dispersed throughout the population and is not necessarily the sole province of those in solicitude position.Mc Gregor himself held to the being that Theory Y assumptions were more valid than Theory X. Therefore, he proposed such idea as participate in decision making, responsible and challenging argumentations, and good go up relation as approaches that would maximize an employees muse motivation.Critics of the conjecture Unfortunately, there is no evidence to stomach that either set of assumptions is valid or that accepting possibleness y assumptions and altering ones acknowledgment will lead to more motivated workers.(Stephen P. Robins, 1993 208)2. 3.2 human Relation ApproachThe main emphasis of the classical approach was on structure and the formal organization as the basic for achieving high levels of work procedure. But during the 1920s greater attention began to be given to the favorable factors at work and to the behaviour of people in the organization that is human relations. The major impetus to the human relations approach came with the famous Hawthorne studies at the Western Electric company in America (1924 1932).The Hawthorne Studies founder been study to criticize and to a number of different interpretation. But however, the resultant references are regarded the studies suffer important implications for organizational structures. They generated new ideas on social interaction, output restrictions and individuals within wor k meetings. The human relations approach marked a limiting in emphasis away from the precision of scientific precaution and led to ideas on increasing productivity by humanizing the work organization with the human relations approach, recognition was given to the splendor of the informal organization which will always be seen as individuals and members of a social group, with their behaviour and military strength as the key effectiveness. (Laurie J. Mullins, 199259)2.3.3 Scientific Management ApproachThe scientific charge movement was pioneered by the American, Frederic W. Taylor. He saw workers who do manual work to be motivated by specie, the greedy robot, and to be too goosey to develop the one best way of doing the chore. The quality of circumspection was to go scientifically all the tasks to be done and then to design jobs to forefend wasted time and motion.The application of scientific oversight resulted in noteworthy productivity increases. However, the emphasis on superfluousization was to give-up the ghost one of the targets of critics of scientific commission. They argued, that specialization was ultimately inefficient but, more importantly it did not allow people to achieve their full potential at work. (Henry L. Tosi et al, 19949)Scientific management is often pointred to as a machine surmisal model. It adopts an instrumental view of human behaviour together with the application of specialization and standard procedures of work. Workers were viewed less as isolated individuals and more as units of production to handle in some(prenominal) the aforesaid(prenominal) way as machines. The scientific study of work can lead to jobs becoming repetitive, boring and requiring weeny skills. The ideas behind scientific management have been largely discredited by subsequent management writers. There has been strong criticism of scientific as representing close management control over workers. By removing decisions about their work is cairn ed out, by piece of labour, and by dictating precise stages and methods for every aspect of work doing, management could gain control of the actual process of work. The rationalization of production processes and division of labour tends to result in de-skilling of work, and thus whitethorn be a main strategy of management. (Laurie J. Mullins, 199256)2.4 The motivation theories2.4.1 Content theory2.4.1.1 Maslow theoryWithout query the best-known theory is of Maslow (1954). Maslow supposed that people have 5 types of take that are activated in a hierarchical manner, and are then aroused in a specific order such that a lower order need must be satisfied ahead the next higher(prenominal) order- need is activated. Once need is met, the next highest need is the hierarchy is triggered and and so forth.Higher Orderorder of progressionSelf-actualisation unavoidablySelf-esteem inevitablySocial demand galosh needs mental needsLower Order course2.2 Maslows need hierarchySource A.H.Masl ow, Motivation and Personality, 2nd edition,New York Harper Row, 1976)Psychological needsPsychological needs are the lowest-order most basic needs and summon to satisfying fundamental biological drives such as the need for food, air, water and shelter. To satisfy these positive needs, organizations must provide employees with a salary that allows them to afford adequate living conditions e.g. food and shelter. Employees need sufficient rest breaks to allow them to meet their mental needs. Organizations whitethorn provide exercise and physical fitness facilities for their employees, because providing such facilities may also be recognized as an attempt to help employees placate healthy by gratifying their psychological needs.Safety needsSafety needs are activated further after physiological needs are met. Safety need refer to needs for a secure, predictable, habitable, non-threatening surround free from threats of either physical or psychological harm. Organizations may provi de employees with life and health insurance plans, opportunity for savings, pensions, and safety equipment and secure contracts that alter work to be performed without fear and harm.Social needsSocial needs are activated after some(prenominal) physiological and safety needs. They refer to the need to be affiliative-to have friends, to be liked, included and accepted by other people. Friends, relations and work colleagues help meet social needs, and organizations may encourage union in social events such as righteousness parties, sports days, competitions which provide an opportunity for meeting these needs. Many organizations spend vast sums of money on facilitate for out-of-work hours activities for their staff so that people in the same organization, but different sections or departments, may meet, chat and affiliate.Esteem needsEsteem needs refer to a persons desire to develop vanity and to gain the approval of others. The desires to achieve success have own(prenominal) pr estigiousness and are recognized by others all fall into this category. Companies may have awards, prizes or banquets to recognize distinguished achievements. Printing articles in company newsletters describing an employees success, designate private parking spaces, and posting signs identifying the employee of the month are all examples of things that can be done to satisfy esteem. The inflation of job titles could also be seen as an organizational attempt to boost employees self-esteem.Self-actualizations needsSelf-actualization needs refer to the need for self-fulfilment-the desire to become all that one is capable of being, exploitation ones potential and fully realizing ones abilities. By functional to their maximum creative potential, employees who are self-actualised can be an extremely valuable asset to their organizations. Individuals who have become self-actualised supposedly work at their peak, and represent the most effective use of an organizations human resources.Cr itics of the theory The theory has enthusiascally applied to the world of work. However, few have been able to find evidence of the five-(or two-) their system (Mitchell Nowdgill 1976), and there is precious little evidence that needs are activated in the same order. Furthermore, it is not certain how, when or why the gratification of one stimulates or activates the next highest category (John Arnold et al, 1995).2.4.1.2 Adelfers ERG theory offshoot needsExistence needs affiliate dress needsLeast concrete Most concreteFigure 2.3 Adelfers continuum of ERG needs.(Paul M.Muchinsky, 1993)Adelfers ERG theory is much simpler than Maslows theory, in that Adelfer specifies that there are only 3 types of needs, but that they are not necessarily activated in any specific order. Further, according to this theory any need may be activated at any time. The 3 needs stipulate by ERG theory are existence, relatedness, and growth.Existence needsThese are material and are satisfied by environmental f actors such as food, water, pay, fringe benefits, and working conditions.Relatedness needsThese involve relationship with significant others, such as co-workers, superiors, subordinates, family and friends.Growth needsThese involve the desire for unique personal development. They are met by developing whatever abilities and capabilities are important to the individual.Critics of the theory ERG theory suggests that, although basic categories of need do exist, they are not exactly as specified by Maslow. The theory has not attracted as much attention as Maslow theory, but seems a reasonable readjustment of it. However, like Maslow theory it is potentially preferably difficult to test (Furnham, 1992).2.4.1.3 Hertzbergs two-factor theory fit in to the two factors theory, people have two major types of needs. The first of these Hertzberg called hygiene needs, which are influenced by the physical and psychological conditions in which people work. Hertzberg called the second set of needs inducing needs, and described them as being very similar to the higher order needs in Maslows (1954) need hierarchy theory.Hertzberg at al. (1959) claimed that different types of outcomes or rewards satisfied these two types of needs. Hygiene needs were said to be satisfied by hygiene factors or dissatisfiers, such as supervision, social relation, physical working conditions, salary, company policies and administrative practices, benefits and job security. When these factors are unfavorable, the job dissatisfaction is the result. Conversely, when hygiene factors are positive, such as when worker perceive that their pay is fair and that their working conditions are good, than barriers to job satisfaction are removed. However, the fulfillment of hygiene needs cannot by itself result in job satisfaction. dissimilar hygiene needs, motivation needs are fulfilled by what Hertzberg et al. (1959) called motivator factors or satisfiers such as achievement, recognition, work itself, respo nsibility and advancement.According to the theory, the factors that lead to job satisfaction are those that satisfy an individuals need for self-actualization (self-fulfillment) in their work, and it is only from the performance of their task that individuals can respect the reward that will repay their aspirations. Compared to hygiene factors, which results in a neutral state (neither satisfied nor dissatisfied) when present, positive motivator factors result in job satisfaction.Critics of the theory Attractive though the theory is, it has little empirical support. There is no doubt attributable to the fact that various methodological errors were introduced in the early theory-testing work. These included the real possibility that all the results were the result of classic attribution errors, such that personal failure is attributed externally (to hygiene factors) and success internally (to motivator factors). Secondly, the theory testing work was nearly all done on clerical wor kers (accountants and engineers) who are hardly representive of the working population.2.4.1.4 McClellands Achievement Motivation TheoryThe need for achievement underlies the higher levels of Maslows hierarchy and also one of Hertzbergs motivating factors. The importance of achievement is emphasised by Mc Lellands, who has developed a theory of motivation which is noted in culture. The work of Mc Lelland is based on the concept of 3 main sets of needs and socially developed motivesThe need for AffiliationThe need for Power andThe need for AchievementPeople have all 3 needs but the relative intensity of affiliation, military force and achievement varies among individuals and different occupations. (Laurie J. Mullins, 1992 206)Those most interested in power seeks positions of control and influence, those for whom affiliation is most important seek pleasant relationship and enjoy helping others achievement seekers want success, fear failure, are task orient and self-reliant. These 3 needs are not mutually exclusive. Many people are well motivated by all 3, but incessantly one area is predominant. The implication of the theory in practice are that managers can identify employees who are self-motivated, those who rely more on internal incentives and those who could increase their achievement drive through training. (Shaun Tyson et al, 2000 15)Critics of the theory Mc Lellands theory implies an individualistic approach to the motivation of staff. The behaviour and performance of work group is as important as for individual motivation. (Laurie J. Mullins, 1992207)2.4.2 Process theories2.4.2.1 integrity theoryEquity theories, borrowed by psychologists from economics (Adams 1965), views motivation from the perspective of the comparisons people make among themselves. It proposes that employees are motivated to maintain fair, or equitable, relationships among themselves and to change those relationships that are below the belt or inequitable. Equity theory suggest s that people make social comparison between themselves and others with respect to two variables-outcomes (benefits, rewards) and inputs ( political campaign, ability). Outcomes refer to the things workers believe they and others get out of their jobs, including pay, fringe benefits or prestige. Inputs refer to the part employees believe they and others make to their jobs, including the nub of time worked, the amount of effort expended, the number of units produced, or the qualifications brought to the job. Not surprisingly, therefore workers may disagree about constitutes justness and inequity in the job. Equity is therefore a subjective, not objective, experience, which makes it more susceptible to being influenced by personality factors (Furnham 1992139).Equity theory states that people compare their outcomes and inputs to those of others in the form of ratio. Specifically, they compare the ratio of their own outcomes and inputs to the ratio of other peoples outcomes and input s, which can result in any of the 3 states overpayment, underpayment, or equitable payment.Implication for managersThe management implications are two-fold firstly that comparative pay and benefits between different groups, sections and levels in an organization, are a major source of motivation and demotivation secondly, employees need to looking at they are fairly dealt with -that they and their colleagues are rewarded equitably for their efforts.Critics of the theory As one might expect, equity theory has its problems how to deal with the concept of negative inputs the point at which equity becomes inequity, and the belief that people prefer and value equity equality. Moreover, the theory is too individualistic. (John Arnold et al, 1995).2.4.2.2 Reinforcement theoryThese theories, for there are many, trap how a history of past benefits (or punishments), or fundings, modify behaviour so that future benefits will be secured. The direct application of behavioral modification prin ciples to the work situation claims to provide procedures by which human performance can be shaped and altered. At the centre of behaviour modification is the concept of reinforcement contingency the rate of performance will increase when valued outcomes (reinforcers) are made contingent on the performance. It makes no difference to the theory what the person needs, expects, values or wants, although these factors may relate on the derivative instrument power or effect of each reward (and punishment). Furthermore, people perform certain work-related acts that are subject to reinforcement (or punishment and extinction) contingencies. People work with a certain degree of effectiveness, and when a particular behavior result in a reward (there is reinforcement contingency between, say, payment and work efficiency), performance improves.Learning theorists assert that all behaviour is shaped and free burning through the action of contingent reinforcement work-related behaviours are simp ly special examples of this more universal phenomenon. (Furnham, 1992).Reinforcement and learning theories are among the oldest in psychology. There has long been a debate concerning the usefulness or otherwise of punishment as a strategy. Problems such as resentment and sabotage may accompany a managers use of punishment (negative reinforcement) is usually not effective, since it suppresses rather than eliminate undesirable responses. They also noted the more quickly reinforcement is given after the response, the more effective it becomes.Implication for managersJablonsky and De Vries (1972) have suggested the pursuance guidelines for applying operant conditioning as a motivating technique subjugate using punishment as a primary gist of obtaining sought after performancePositively reinforce desired behaviour and ignore unwanted behaviour if possible.Minimize the time-lag between response and reinforcementApply positive reinforcement frequently on a variable ratio documentDeter mine environmental factors that are considered positive and negative by individualCritics of the theory Being very practically oriented, it is very unclear what managers should do to motivate their staff if they are followers of learning theory. Sensitively, subtly and discretely applied, it plant life well, but sophisticated workforce is sometimes hostile to it. (John Arnold et al, 1995).2.4.2.3 Expectancy theoryExpectancy theory asserts that people are mostly motivated to work when they expect they will be able to achieve and obtain the things they want from their jobs. Expectancy theory characterizes people as rational, logical and cognitive beings, who gestate about what they have to do to be rewarded and how much the reward means to them before they perform their jobs. Expectancy theory specifies that motivation is the result of 3 different types of beliefs cognitions that people have. These are known asExpectancy-The belief that ones effort will result in performance orchest rationThe belief that ones performance will be rewardedValence-The perceived value of the rewards to the recipientEmployee may believe that a great deal of efforts will result in get much accomplished, whereas others believe there are other occasions in which hard work will have little effects on how much gets done. It is possible that even if an employee works hard and performs at a high level, motivation may falter if that performance is not appropriately rewarded by the organization-that is if the performance was not perceived as instrumental in bringing about the rewards. If behaviour is not explicitly rewarded, people are unlikely to repeat it. Furthermore, even if employees receive rewards based on their performance, they may be poorly motivated if those so-called rewards have a low valence to them. gatekeeper and LawlerOver the years, Porter and Lawler (1968) adapted and expanded the theory. According to this model, job performance is a multiple combination of abilities and skills, effort and intent perceptions. If individuals have clear role perceptions, if they possess the necessary skills and abilities, and if they are motivated to exert sufficient effort, the model suggests that they will perform well. Abilities and skills refer to both physical and psychological characteristics.Role perceptions refer to the clarity of the job explanation and to whether individuals know how to direct their efforts towards effectively completing the task. Those who have clear perceptions of their role perceptions apply their efforts where they will count, and perform correct behaviours. Those who have incorrect role perceptions tend to spend much of their time in unproductive efforts that do not contribute to effective job performance.ExpectancyExpectancyInstrumentalityExtrinsicoutcome / rewardOutcome /RewardSatisfaction accomplishmentEffortIntrinsicoutcome / rewardPerceived equity of outcomes / rewards military control design,Organizational policiesand practiceA bility and traits,Role clarity organizationalsupports, etcFigure 2.4 Porter and Lawlers expanded expectancy modelSource Adapted from Porter and Lawler (1968)Implication for managers Arnold et al. (1991176) argues that, if expectancy theory were correct it would have important implications for managers compliments to ensure that employees were motivated to perform their work dutiesThey would need to ensure that all 3 of the following conditions were satisfiedEmployees perceived that they possessed the necessary skills to do their jobs at least adequately (expectancy)Employees perceived that if they performed their jobs well, or at least adequately, they would be rewarded (instrumentality).Employees found the rewards offered for successful job performance attractive (valence).Critics of the theory Although some specific aspects of the Expectancy theory have been supported (particularly the impact of expectancy and instrumentality on motivation), others have not (such as the contribut ion of valence to motivation, and the assumption that expectancy, instrumentality and valence are multiplied.) Arnold et al. (1991) note how little attention the theory pays in explaining why an individual values or does not value particular outcomes no concept of need is problematical to address this question. The theory proposes that people should ask soul how much they value something, but not bother about why they value it. (John Arnold et al, 1995)2.4.2.4 Goal compass TheoryThis approach to motivation was pioneered by Ed Loche and his associate, starting in the 1960s and continuing with increasing strength and sophistication ever since. The above figure represents goal setting theory, and shows that the characteristics of a goal and attitudes towards it are thought to be influences by incentives, self-perceptions and the manner in which goals are set. In turn, those goals characteristics and attitudes are thought to determine behavioural strategies, which lead to performanc e within the constraints of ability knowledge of results (also called feedback) is thought to be essential to further subtlety of behavioural strategies.Goal Setting TheoryParticipation in goal setting(Self-perceived) abilityFinancial incentiveGoal commitmentGoal acceptanceGoal difficultyGoal specificationDirection forcePersistenceStrategiesKnowledge of resultsAbilityPerformanceFigure 2.5 Goal Setting TheorySource Adapted from Psychology of work Behaviour by F. Landy. Copyright 1989, 1985, 1980, 1976. Brooks / Cole Publishing Company, a division of world-wide Thomson Publishing Inc. By permission of the publisher.What does explore say about goal setting?Some further comments can be made on the basis of research evidence first financial incentives can indeed enhance performance. Loche et al. (1981) report that this occurs either through raising goal level, or through increasing commitment to a goal. Second, and unsurprisingly, ability also affects performance. Third, research on goal setting has been carried out in a go of context and fourth, goal setting is magnificently deal about how managers can enhance the performance of their employees. Some other research has directly investigated specific potential limitations of goal setting.Earley et al. (1989) suggested that goal setting may be abusive where a task in novel and where a considerable metrical composition of possible strategies are available to tackle it. It seems that when people are tackling unfamiliar with(predicate) and complex tasks, goal setting can induce them to pay much attention to task strategy and not enough to task performance itself.Goal setting could be criticized in its early days for being a technology rather than a theory. It successfully described how goal focus behaviour, without really addressing why or through what process goals influenced behaviour. Furthermore, goal setting, suggests that people are most motivated by difficult tasks where success is (presumably) not certa in.A continuing issue in goal setting concerns participation. Locke et al. (1981) concluded that there was no evidence from published research that participation in goal setting by the person attempting to achieve the goal produced better performance than if the goal was assigned to him or her by someone else.Kanfer et al. (1994) got students to attempt a simulated air traffic control task and repeated the findings that goal setting can harm performance of unfamiliar complex tasks. But they also found that giving people time to reflect on their performance between repeated attempts at similar tasks eliminate that effect. The breaks enabled them to devote intentional resources to their strategies without having simultaneously to tackle the task itself. (John Arnold et al, 1998)2.5 personal credit line satisfaction and motivationLocke (1976) defined job satisfaction as a pleasurable or positive emotional state resulting from the appraisal of ones job or job experience. The concept gen erally ref