Definition Of Motivation Business Essay

Definition Of pauperism blood EssayOne of the oldest, and most difficult, atomic number 18as in psychology is the unfathomed enigma of why tribe be do to do eitherthing at all, and if they do something, why that and non something else. The issue is sincerely two fold the character of the driving force (where it comes from what argon its properties) and the prudence and maintenance of the drive (what affects does it study on soulfulness behavior).For Westwood (1992288), motif, as a purpose, has certain special features motivation is an inhering state experienced by the undivided. Whilst external factors including other mountain, fundament affect a persons motivational state, it develops at heart the individual and is unique to that individual.The individual experiences a motivational state in a way that gives advancement to a desire, intention and pressure to act.Motivation has an element of choice, intention or waive foringness. That is, the individual ex periencing a state of arousal (externally or internally generated), responds by choosing to act in a way and at a take aim of intensity that they determine.Action and per solveance atomic number 18 a function, at to the lowest degree in part, of motivation. It is and so important in our ability to predict and bring in actions and consummateance.Motivation is multi-faceted. It is a complex process with s everal elements and the possibility of binary determinants, options and come oncomes.Individuals differ in terms of their motivational state and the factors that affect it.Furthermore, the motivational state of an individual is variable it is divergent crossways magazine and across situations.(John Arnold et al, 1995) on that point are two types of motivation as originally place by Hertzberg et al (1957)Intrinsic motivation-The self generated factors that influence people to ex unrivalledrate in a particular direction. These factors include responsibility, autonomy (free dom to act), scope to commit and develop skills and abilities, inte resting and challenging snip and opportunities for advancement.Extrinsic motivation-what is done to or for people to motivate them. This includes rewards, such as increased recompense, praise, or promotion, and penalizations, such as disciplinary action, withholding pay, or criticisms.2.2 The process of motivation incite other people is about mystifyting them to move in the direction you fatality them to go in order to achieve a go forth. motivation yourself is about saddle horse the direction independently and and so taking a course of action, which will ensure that you get there. Motivation throne be described as mark -directed behavior. People are motivated when they support that a course of action is belike to caterpillar tread to the attainment of a refinement and a measured reward-one that satisfies their postulate. But managers still put one over a major part to play in using their motiva ting skills to get people to give of their best, and to gain ground good usage of motivational processes showd by the organization. To do this it is necessary to understand the process of motivation-how it endures and the different types of motivations that exist. A pauperisation -related model of the process of motivation is shown in the figure be commencement. This suggests that motivation is initiated by the conscious or unconscious recognition of unsatisfied necessitate. These inevitably create wants, which are desires to achieve or obtain something. destinations are thusly established which is bankd will satisfy these ineluctably and wants and a behaviour driveway is selected which is expected will achieve the address. If the mark is achieved, the postulate will be satisfied and the behaviour is likely to be repeated, the bordering time a sympathetic ingest emerges. If the goal is not achieved, the action is slight likely to be repeated. This process of repe ating achievementful behaviour or actions is cal conduct backing or the law of effect (Hull, 1951). It has, however, been criticized by Allport (1954) as ignoring the influence of expectations and thereof constituting hedonism of the past. (Michael Armstrong, 2001 155).Attain polishNeedTake ActionEstablish object epitome2.1 The motivation process(Source Michael Armstrong, 2001155).2.3 Approaches to motivation2.3.1 possibility X and hypothesis YDouglas Mc Gregor proposed two distinct positions of benignant beingnesss one basically negative, designate guess X, and the other basically ap peaked(p), labeled conjecture Y.Under Theory X, the 4 assumptions held by managers areEmployees inherently dislike report, whenever possible, will set about to avoid it.Since employees dislike become, they must be coerced, disciplineled, or threatened with penalty to achieve goals.Employees will avoid responsibilities and adjudicate formal direction whenever possible. nigh do b lend iners place security above all other factors associated with work and present light ambitions.In contrast to these negative flocks the nature of tender-hearted being, Mc Gregor listed 4 dictatorial assumptions that he called Theory YEmployees toilet view work as being as natural as rest or play.People will exercise self-direction and self-control if they are committed to the objectives.The average person nominate learn to accept, even seek responsibility.The ability to make innovative last is widely dispersed throughout the population and is not necessarily the sole province of those in solicitude position.Mc Gregor himself held to the being that Theory Y assumptions were more valid than Theory X. Therefore, he proposed such idea as participate in decision making, responsible and challenging argumentations, and good go up relation as approaches that would maximize an employees muse motivation.Critics of the conjecture Unfortunately, there is no evidence to stomach that either set of assumptions is valid or that accepting possibleness y assumptions and altering ones acknowledgment will lead to more motivated workers.(Stephen P. Robins, 1993 208)2. 3.2 human Relation ApproachThe main emphasis of the classical approach was on structure and the formal organization as the basic for achieving high levels of work procedure. But during the 1920s greater attention began to be given to the favorable factors at work and to the behaviour of people in the organization that is human relations. The major impetus to the human relations approach came with the famous Hawthorne studies at the Western Electric company in America (1924 1932).The Hawthorne Studies founder been study to criticize and to a number of different interpretation. But however, the resultant references are regarded the studies suffer important implications for organizational structures. They generated new ideas on social interaction, output restrictions and individuals within wor k meetings. The human relations approach marked a limiting in emphasis away from the precision of scientific precaution and led to ideas on increasing productivity by humanizing the work organization with the human relations approach, recognition was given to the splendor of the informal organization which will always be seen as individuals and members of a social group, with their behaviour and military strength as the key effectiveness. (Laurie J. Mullins, 199259)2.3.3 Scientific Management ApproachThe scientific charge movement was pioneered by the American, Frederic W. Taylor. He saw workers who do manual work to be motivated by specie, the greedy robot, and to be too goosey to develop the one best way of doing the chore. The quality of circumspection was to go scientifically all the tasks to be done and then to design jobs to forefend wasted time and motion.The application of scientific oversight resulted in noteworthy productivity increases. However, the emphasis on superfluousization was to give-up the ghost one of the targets of critics of scientific commission. They argued, that specialization was ultimately inefficient but, more importantly it did not allow people to achieve their full potential at work. (Henry L. Tosi et al, 19949)Scientific management is often pointred to as a machine surmisal model. It adopts an instrumental view of human behaviour together with the application of specialization and standard procedures of work. Workers were viewed less as isolated individuals and more as units of production to handle in some(prenominal) the aforesaid(prenominal) way as machines. The scientific study of work can lead to jobs becoming repetitive, boring and requiring weeny skills. The ideas behind scientific management have been largely discredited by subsequent management writers. There has been strong criticism of scientific as representing close management control over workers. By removing decisions about their work is cairn ed out, by piece of labour, and by dictating precise stages and methods for every aspect of work doing, management could gain control of the actual process of work. The rationalization of production processes and division of labour tends to result in de-skilling of work, and thus whitethorn be a main strategy of management. (Laurie J. Mullins, 199256)2.4 The motivation theories2.4.1 Content theory2.4.1.1 Maslow theoryWithout query the best-known theory is of Maslow (1954). Maslow supposed that people have 5 types of take that are activated in a hierarchical manner, and are then aroused in a specific order such that a lower order need must be satisfied ahead the next higher(prenominal) order- need is activated. Once need is met, the next highest need is the hierarchy is triggered and and so forth.Higher Orderorder of progressionSelf-actualisation unavoidablySelf-esteem inevitablySocial demand galosh needs mental needsLower Order course2.2 Maslows need hierarchySource A.H.Masl ow, Motivation and Personality, 2nd edition,New York Harper Row, 1976)Psychological needsPsychological needs are the lowest-order most basic needs and summon to satisfying fundamental biological drives such as the need for food, air, water and shelter. To satisfy these positive needs, organizations must provide employees with a salary that allows them to afford adequate living conditions e.g. food and shelter. Employees need sufficient rest breaks to allow them to meet their mental needs. Organizations whitethorn provide exercise and physical fitness facilities for their employees, because providing such facilities may also be recognized as an attempt to help employees placate healthy by gratifying their psychological needs.Safety needsSafety needs are activated further after physiological needs are met. Safety need refer to needs for a secure, predictable, habitable, non-threatening surround free from threats of either physical or psychological harm. Organizations may provi de employees with life and health insurance plans, opportunity for savings, pensions, and safety equipment and secure contracts that alter work to be performed without fear and harm.Social needsSocial needs are activated after some(prenominal) physiological and safety needs. They refer to the need to be affiliative-to have friends, to be liked, included and accepted by other people. Friends, relations and work colleagues help meet social needs, and organizations may encourage union in social events such as righteousness parties, sports days, competitions which provide an opportunity for meeting these needs. Many organizations spend vast sums of money on facilitate for out-of-work hours activities for their staff so that people in the same organization, but different sections or departments, may meet, chat and affiliate.Esteem needsEsteem needs refer to a persons desire to develop vanity and to gain the approval of others. The desires to achieve success have own(prenominal) pr estigiousness and are recognized by others all fall into this category. Companies may have awards, prizes or banquets to recognize distinguished achievements. Printing articles in company newsletters describing an employees success, designate private parking spaces, and posting signs identifying the employee of the month are all examples of things that can be done to satisfy esteem. The inflation of job titles could also be seen as an organizational attempt to boost employees self-esteem.Self-actualizations needsSelf-actualization needs refer to the need for self-fulfilment-the desire to become all that one is capable of being, exploitation ones potential and fully realizing ones abilities. By functional to their maximum creative potential, employees who are self-actualised can be an extremely valuable asset to their organizations. Individuals who have become self-actualised supposedly work at their peak, and represent the most effective use of an organizations human resources.Cr itics of the theory The theory has enthusiascally applied to the world of work. However, few have been able to find evidence of the five-(or two-) their system (Mitchell Nowdgill 1976), and there is precious little evidence that needs are activated in the same order. Furthermore, it is not certain how, when or why the gratification of one stimulates or activates the next highest category (John Arnold et al, 1995).2.4.1.2 Adelfers ERG theory offshoot needsExistence needs affiliate dress needsLeast concrete Most concreteFigure 2.3 Adelfers continuum of ERG needs.(Paul M.Muchinsky, 1993)Adelfers ERG theory is much simpler than Maslows theory, in that Adelfer specifies that there are only 3 types of needs, but that they are not necessarily activated in any specific order. Further, according to this theory any need may be activated at any time. The 3 needs stipulate by ERG theory are existence, relatedness, and growth.Existence needsThese are material and are satisfied by environmental f actors such as food, water, pay, fringe benefits, and working conditions.Relatedness needsThese involve relationship with significant others, such as co-workers, superiors, subordinates, family and friends.Growth needsThese involve the desire for unique personal development. They are met by developing whatever abilities and capabilities are important to the individual.Critics of the theory ERG theory suggests that, although basic categories of need do exist, they are not exactly as specified by Maslow. The theory has not attracted as much attention as Maslow theory, but seems a reasonable readjustment of it. However, like Maslow theory it is potentially preferably difficult to test (Furnham, 1992).2.4.1.3 Hertzbergs two-factor theory fit in to the two factors theory, people have two major types of needs. The first of these Hertzberg called hygiene needs, which are influenced by the physical and psychological conditions in which people work. Hertzberg called the second set of needs inducing needs, and described them as being very similar to the higher order needs in Maslows (1954) need hierarchy theory.Hertzberg at al. (1959) claimed that different types of outcomes or rewards satisfied these two types of needs. Hygiene needs were said to be satisfied by hygiene factors or dissatisfiers, such as supervision, social relation, physical working conditions, salary, company policies and administrative practices, benefits and job security. When these factors are unfavorable, the job dissatisfaction is the result. Conversely, when hygiene factors are positive, such as when worker perceive that their pay is fair and that their working conditions are good, than barriers to job satisfaction are removed. However, the fulfillment of hygiene needs cannot by itself result in job satisfaction. dissimilar hygiene needs, motivation needs are fulfilled by what Hertzberg et al. (1959) called motivator factors or satisfiers such as achievement, recognition, work itself, respo nsibility and advancement.According to the theory, the factors that lead to job satisfaction are those that satisfy an individuals need for self-actualization (self-fulfillment) in their work, and it is only from the performance of their task that individuals can respect the reward that will repay their aspirations. Compared to hygiene factors, which results in a neutral state (neither satisfied nor dissatisfied) when present, positive motivator factors result in job satisfaction.Critics of the theory Attractive though the theory is, it has little empirical support. There is no doubt attributable to the fact that various methodological errors were introduced in the early theory-testing work. These included the real possibility that all the results were the result of classic attribution errors, such that personal failure is attributed externally (to hygiene factors) and success internally (to motivator factors). Secondly, the theory testing work was nearly all done on clerical wor kers (accountants and engineers) who are hardly representive of the working population.2.4.1.4 McClellands Achievement Motivation TheoryThe need for achievement underlies the higher levels of Maslows hierarchy and also one of Hertzbergs motivating factors. The importance of achievement is emphasised by Mc Lellands, who has developed a theory of motivation which is noted in culture. The work of Mc Lelland is based on the concept of 3 main sets of needs and socially developed motivesThe need for AffiliationThe need for Power andThe need for AchievementPeople have all 3 needs but the relative intensity of affiliation, military force and achievement varies among individuals and different occupations. (Laurie J. Mullins, 1992 206)Those most interested in power seeks positions of control and influence, those for whom affiliation is most important seek pleasant relationship and enjoy helping others achievement seekers want success, fear failure, are task orient and self-reliant. These 3 needs are not mutually exclusive. Many people are well motivated by all 3, but incessantly one area is predominant. The implication of the theory in practice are that managers can identify employees who are self-motivated, those who rely more on internal incentives and those who could increase their achievement drive through training. (Shaun Tyson et al, 2000 15)Critics of the theory Mc Lellands theory implies an individualistic approach to the motivation of staff. The behaviour and performance of work group is as important as for individual motivation. (Laurie J. Mullins, 1992207)2.4.2 Process theories2.4.2.1 integrity theoryEquity theories, borrowed by psychologists from economics (Adams 1965), views motivation from the perspective of the comparisons people make among themselves. It proposes that employees are motivated to maintain fair, or equitable, relationships among themselves and to change those relationships that are below the belt or inequitable. Equity theory suggest s that people make social comparison between themselves and others with respect to two variables-outcomes (benefits, rewards) and inputs ( political campaign, ability). Outcomes refer to the things workers believe they and others get out of their jobs, including pay, fringe benefits or prestige. Inputs refer to the part employees believe they and others make to their jobs, including the nub of time worked, the amount of effort expended, the number of units produced, or the qualifications brought to the job. Not surprisingly, therefore workers may disagree about constitutes justness and inequity in the job. Equity is therefore a subjective, not objective, experience, which makes it more susceptible to being influenced by personality factors (Furnham 1992139).Equity theory states that people compare their outcomes and inputs to those of others in the form of ratio. Specifically, they compare the ratio of their own outcomes and inputs to the ratio of other peoples outcomes and input s, which can result in any of the 3 states overpayment, underpayment, or equitable payment.Implication for managersThe management implications are two-fold firstly that comparative pay and benefits between different groups, sections and levels in an organization, are a major source of motivation and demotivation secondly, employees need to looking at they are fairly dealt with -that they and their colleagues are rewarded equitably for their efforts.Critics of the theory As one might expect, equity theory has its problems how to deal with the concept of negative inputs the point at which equity becomes inequity, and the belief that people prefer and value equity equality. Moreover, the theory is too individualistic. (John Arnold et al, 1995).2.4.2.2 Reinforcement theoryThese theories, for there are many, trap how a history of past benefits (or punishments), or fundings, modify behaviour so that future benefits will be secured. The direct application of behavioral modification prin ciples to the work situation claims to provide procedures by which human performance can be shaped and altered. At the centre of behaviour modification is the concept of reinforcement contingency the rate of performance will increase when valued outcomes (reinforcers) are made contingent on the performance. It makes no difference to the theory what the person needs, expects, values or wants, although these factors may relate on the derivative instrument power or effect of each reward (and punishment). Furthermore, people perform certain work-related acts that are subject to reinforcement (or punishment and extinction) contingencies. People work with a certain degree of effectiveness, and when a particular behavior result in a reward (there is reinforcement contingency between, say, payment and work efficiency), performance improves.Learning theorists assert that all behaviour is shaped and free burning through the action of contingent reinforcement work-related behaviours are simp ly special examples of this more universal phenomenon. (Furnham, 1992).Reinforcement and learning theories are among the oldest in psychology. There has long been a debate concerning the usefulness or otherwise of punishment as a strategy. Problems such as resentment and sabotage may accompany a managers use of punishment (negative reinforcement) is usually not effective, since it suppresses rather than eliminate undesirable responses. They also noted the more quickly reinforcement is given after the response, the more effective it becomes.Implication for managersJablonsky and De Vries (1972) have suggested the pursuance guidelines for applying operant conditioning as a motivating technique subjugate using punishment as a primary gist of obtaining sought after performancePositively reinforce desired behaviour and ignore unwanted behaviour if possible.Minimize the time-lag between response and reinforcementApply positive reinforcement frequently on a variable ratio documentDeter mine environmental factors that are considered positive and negative by individualCritics of the theory Being very practically oriented, it is very unclear what managers should do to motivate their staff if they are followers of learning theory. Sensitively, subtly and discretely applied, it plant life well, but sophisticated workforce is sometimes hostile to it. (John Arnold et al, 1995).2.4.2.3 Expectancy theoryExpectancy theory asserts that people are mostly motivated to work when they expect they will be able to achieve and obtain the things they want from their jobs. Expectancy theory characterizes people as rational, logical and cognitive beings, who gestate about what they have to do to be rewarded and how much the reward means to them before they perform their jobs. Expectancy theory specifies that motivation is the result of 3 different types of beliefs cognitions that people have. These are known asExpectancy-The belief that ones effort will result in performance orchest rationThe belief that ones performance will be rewardedValence-The perceived value of the rewards to the recipientEmployee may believe that a great deal of efforts will result in get much accomplished, whereas others believe there are other occasions in which hard work will have little effects on how much gets done. It is possible that even if an employee works hard and performs at a high level, motivation may falter if that performance is not appropriately rewarded by the organization-that is if the performance was not perceived as instrumental in bringing about the rewards. If behaviour is not explicitly rewarded, people are unlikely to repeat it. Furthermore, even if employees receive rewards based on their performance, they may be poorly motivated if those so-called rewards have a low valence to them. gatekeeper and LawlerOver the years, Porter and Lawler (1968) adapted and expanded the theory. According to this model, job performance is a multiple combination of abilities and skills, effort and intent perceptions. If individuals have clear role perceptions, if they possess the necessary skills and abilities, and if they are motivated to exert sufficient effort, the model suggests that they will perform well. Abilities and skills refer to both physical and psychological characteristics.Role perceptions refer to the clarity of the job explanation and to whether individuals know how to direct their efforts towards effectively completing the task. Those who have clear perceptions of their role perceptions apply their efforts where they will count, and perform correct behaviours. Those who have incorrect role perceptions tend to spend much of their time in unproductive efforts that do not contribute to effective job performance.ExpectancyExpectancyInstrumentalityExtrinsicoutcome / rewardOutcome /RewardSatisfaction accomplishmentEffortIntrinsicoutcome / rewardPerceived equity of outcomes / rewards military control design,Organizational policiesand practiceA bility and traits,Role clarity organizationalsupports, etcFigure 2.4 Porter and Lawlers expanded expectancy modelSource Adapted from Porter and Lawler (1968)Implication for managers Arnold et al. (1991176) argues that, if expectancy theory were correct it would have important implications for managers compliments to ensure that employees were motivated to perform their work dutiesThey would need to ensure that all 3 of the following conditions were satisfiedEmployees perceived that they possessed the necessary skills to do their jobs at least adequately (expectancy)Employees perceived that if they performed their jobs well, or at least adequately, they would be rewarded (instrumentality).Employees found the rewards offered for successful job performance attractive (valence).Critics of the theory Although some specific aspects of the Expectancy theory have been supported (particularly the impact of expectancy and instrumentality on motivation), others have not (such as the contribut ion of valence to motivation, and the assumption that expectancy, instrumentality and valence are multiplied.) Arnold et al. (1991) note how little attention the theory pays in explaining why an individual values or does not value particular outcomes no concept of need is problematical to address this question. The theory proposes that people should ask soul how much they value something, but not bother about why they value it. (John Arnold et al, 1995)2.4.2.4 Goal compass TheoryThis approach to motivation was pioneered by Ed Loche and his associate, starting in the 1960s and continuing with increasing strength and sophistication ever since. The above figure represents goal setting theory, and shows that the characteristics of a goal and attitudes towards it are thought to be influences by incentives, self-perceptions and the manner in which goals are set. In turn, those goals characteristics and attitudes are thought to determine behavioural strategies, which lead to performanc e within the constraints of ability knowledge of results (also called feedback) is thought to be essential to further subtlety of behavioural strategies.Goal Setting TheoryParticipation in goal setting(Self-perceived) abilityFinancial incentiveGoal commitmentGoal acceptanceGoal difficultyGoal specificationDirection forcePersistenceStrategiesKnowledge of resultsAbilityPerformanceFigure 2.5 Goal Setting TheorySource Adapted from Psychology of work Behaviour by F. Landy. Copyright 1989, 1985, 1980, 1976. Brooks / Cole Publishing Company, a division of world-wide Thomson Publishing Inc. By permission of the publisher.What does explore say about goal setting?Some further comments can be made on the basis of research evidence first financial incentives can indeed enhance performance. Loche et al. (1981) report that this occurs either through raising goal level, or through increasing commitment to a goal. Second, and unsurprisingly, ability also affects performance. Third, research on goal setting has been carried out in a go of context and fourth, goal setting is magnificently deal about how managers can enhance the performance of their employees. Some other research has directly investigated specific potential limitations of goal setting.Earley et al. (1989) suggested that goal setting may be abusive where a task in novel and where a considerable metrical composition of possible strategies are available to tackle it. It seems that when people are tackling unfamiliar with(predicate) and complex tasks, goal setting can induce them to pay much attention to task strategy and not enough to task performance itself.Goal setting could be criticized in its early days for being a technology rather than a theory. It successfully described how goal focus behaviour, without really addressing why or through what process goals influenced behaviour. Furthermore, goal setting, suggests that people are most motivated by difficult tasks where success is (presumably) not certa in.A continuing issue in goal setting concerns participation. Locke et al. (1981) concluded that there was no evidence from published research that participation in goal setting by the person attempting to achieve the goal produced better performance than if the goal was assigned to him or her by someone else.Kanfer et al. (1994) got students to attempt a simulated air traffic control task and repeated the findings that goal setting can harm performance of unfamiliar complex tasks. But they also found that giving people time to reflect on their performance between repeated attempts at similar tasks eliminate that effect. The breaks enabled them to devote intentional resources to their strategies without having simultaneously to tackle the task itself. (John Arnold et al, 1998)2.5 personal credit line satisfaction and motivationLocke (1976) defined job satisfaction as a pleasurable or positive emotional state resulting from the appraisal of ones job or job experience. The concept gen erally ref